OPINION
RUSSELL A. ANDERSON, Justice.
Appellants Rolan Wiegand, Loma Ques-ette Matthews, and Almond Baxter Long-ley were charged with fifth-degree possession of controlled substance in violation of Minn.Stat. § 152.025, subd. 2(1) (2000). They moved to suppress the evidence obtained as a result of a search of the vehicle they were in, which was conducted after a trained narcotics-detection dog alerted to the presence of narcotics under the hood of the vehicle. Wiegand also moved to suppress the evidence obtained from his person, which was recovered as a result of a pat-down search incident to arrest after discovery of the narcotics under the hood. The district court suppressed the evidence, concluding that the law enforcement officers lacked probable cause to conduct the dog sniff around the exterior of the vehicle, and thus lacked probable cause to search the vehicle. The district court dismissed the charges and the court of appeals reversed, concluding that a dog sniff is not a search and therefore does not require probable cause. State v. Wiegand, 621 N.W.2d 476, 478 (Minn.App.2001). While we agree that the dog sniff of the exterior of the motor vehicle in this case was not a search requiring probable cause, we reverse the court of appeals on the basis that the investigative method used by the officers exceeded the permissible scope of a traffic stop for a routine equipment violation in the absence of a reasonable, articulable suspicion of drug-related criminal activity.
A Cloquet police officer observed a car traveling north on Highway 33 at 12:20 a.m. with a burned-out headlight. The officer stopped the car and identified Matthews, the owner of the vehicle, in the back seat, Wiegand, the driver, and Long-ley in the front passenger seat. As the officer spoke with appellants, two other Cloquet police officers arrived on the scene.1 The officer who made the stop reported that Wiegand had very slow and quiet speech, was somewhat nervous, was shaking, and had glossy eyes. The officer also testified at the suppression hearing that Wiegand was looking down and was not talking in the officer’s direction. On cross-examination, the officer testified that during the stop he did not suspect that Wiegand was under the influence of any drugs, but instead concluded simply that Wiegand was acting suspiciously.
The officer asked Wiegand, and then Matthews, if there were any narcotics in the car, and each responded there were not. The officer requested permission to [129]*129search the car, and Matthews denied the request. The officer determined not to issue a citation but to issue a warning for the equipment violation, and asked another officer to write the warning so that he could retrieve his dog, trained in narcotics detection, from his patrol car.
The officer walked the dog around the car twice, and each time the dog alerted to narcotics at the front, passenger-side corner of the car. The officer told Matthews that the dog detected narcotics, and she responded that it may have been because she occasionally smokes a marijuana joint in the car. The officer walked the dog around the car a third time, and the dog alerted to the same area. At some point, either preceding or following the third alert, the officer placed the dog in the interior of the vehicle to pinpoint the origin of the smell that had caused the dog to alert to narcotics, and the officers then searched the interior of the vehicle. The dog did not alert to narcotics inside the vehicle, however, and the officers found no narcotics. The officers then opened the hood of the car and discovered four and one-half ounces of marijuana in a plastic bag behind the insulation on the underside of the hood. The officers placed appellants under arrest. During a pat-down of appellants, more marijuana and some cocaine were found on Wiegand.. Appellants were charged with possession of controlled substance in the fifth degree, Wiegand with two counts.
On motions to suppress the controlled substance in each case, the district court concluded that there was no probable cause for a search, suppressed the evidence, and dismissed the charges. The court of appeals reversed, concluding that a dog sniff is not a search, and therefore probable cause is not required to conduct a dog sniff. Wiegand, 621 N.W.2d at 478.
I.
We are asked to determine whether the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution or Article I, Section 10, of the Minnesota Constitution require probable cause or a reasonable, articulable suspicion of drug-related criminal activity before a narcotics-detection dog may be used around the exterior of a motor vehicle stopped for an equipment violation. This case also presents us with the related issue whether the use of the narcotics-detection dog in this case was within the permissible scope of the limited investigation occasioned by a stop for a routine equipment violation. We review de novo a lower court’s ruling on constitutional questions. State v. Wicklund, 589 N.W.2d 793, 797 (Minn.1999). We also review de novo a district court’s determination of probable cause as it relates to warrantless searches. Matter of Welfare of GM., 560 N.W.2d 687, 690 (Minn.1997). When reviewing the legality of a search or seizure, an appellate court will not reverse the district court’s factual findings unless clearly erroneous or contrary to law. Id.
II.
We first consider whether a dog sniff of a motor vehicle stopped for a routine equipment violation is a search requiring probable cause. In United States v. Place, 462 U.S. 696, 103 S.Ct. 2637, 77 L.Ed.2d 110 (1983), the U.S. Supreme Court concluded that a dog sniff of luggage in a public place is not a search that requires probable cause.2 Id. at 707, 103 S.Ct. 2637. The Court reasoned as follows:
[130]*130[T]he canine sniff is sui generis. We are aware of no other investigative procedure that is so limited both in the manner in which the information is obtained and in the content of the information revealed by the procedure. Therefore, we conclude that the particular course of investigation that the agents intended to pursue here — exposure of respondent’s luggage, which was located in a public place, to a trained canine— did not constitute a “search” within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment.
462 U.S. at 707,103 S.Ct. 2637. The Court explicitly limited its ruling to the exposure of luggage in an airport, a public place, to a dog sniff, which suggests the possibility that a dog sniff under different circumstances might be treated differently.
Indeed, the analysis of permissible searches and seizures necessarily requires consideration of the particular privacy interests in the place or item to be searched. In the Court’s recent decision in Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27, 121 S.Ct. 2038, 150 L.Ed.2d 94 (2001), the Court reiterated the primacy of the home in the array of protected spaces. The Court held that use of thermal-imaging devices that detect heat in a home from the public street constitutes a search under the Fourth Amendment, in part because the sense-enhancing technology allowed the government to obtain information that it could not have otherwise obtained without physical intrusion.3 533 U.S. at 34-35,121 S.Ct. 2038. While Kyllo involved both the home and a piece of technical equipment much different from a dog, its reasoning suggests that a dog sniff of a home might lead a court to conclude that a search requiring probable cause took place.4
We consider, then, the nature of the privacy interest in an automobile.5 [131]*131Automobiles constitute “effects” under the Fourth Amendment, and therefore the constitutional standard of reasonableness applies to searches and seizures of automobiles. Cady v. Dombrowski, 413 U.S. 433, 439, 93 S.Ct. 2523, 37 L.Ed.2d 706 (1973). However, the U.S. Supreme Court has determined that the privacy expectation surrounding an automobile is less than that of a home because the automobile generally does not serve as the repository of personal effects. Cardwell, 417 U.S. at 590, 94 S.Ct. 2464. The privacy expectation is also diminished because of the significant governmental regulation of vehicles. South Dakota v. Opperman, 428 U.S. 364, 368, 96 S.Ct. 3092, 49 L.Ed.2d 1000 (1976). However, “[t]he word ‘automobile’ is not a talisman in whose presence the Fourth Amendment fades away and disappears.” Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 461-62, 91 S.Ct. 2022, 29 L.Ed.2d 564 (1971). As the Court has recognized, “[a] search, even of an automobile, is a substantial invasion of privacy.” United States v. Ortiz, 422 U.S. 891, 896, 95 S.Ct. 2585, 45 L.Ed.2d 623 (1975); see also State v. Goodrich, 256 N.W.2d 506, 510 (Minn. 1977) (holding privacy interest in automobile constitutionally protected).
However, the U.S. Supreme Court has indicated that the holding from Place that a dog sniff is not a search would apply to a dog sniff conducted around the exterior of a motor vehicle. Edmond, 531 U.S. at 40, 121 S.Ct. 447.6 Edmond involved a vehicle checkpoint set up to interdict illegal drugs. The Court stated that “an exterior sniff of an automobile does not require entry into the car and is not designed to disclose any information other than the presence or absence of narcotics.” Edmond, 531 U.S. at 40, 121 S.Ct. 447. The Court continued by stating that, “Mike the dog sniff in Place, a sniff by a dog that simply walks around a car is ‘much less intrusive than a typical search.’” Id. (quoting Place, 462 U.S. at 707,103 S.Ct. 2637).
Federal courts of appeals addressing dog sniffs of motor vehicles have held [132]*132that a dog sniff is not a search requiring probable cause. See, e.g., United States v. $404,905.00 in U.S. Currency, 182 F.3d 643, 647 (8th Cir.1999); United States v. Hunnicutt, 135 F.3d 1345, 1350 (10th Cir. 1998); United States v. Holloman, 113 F.3d 192, 194 (11th Cir.1997); United States v. Jeffus, 22 F.3d 554, 557 (4th Cir.1994); United States v. Seals, 987 F.2d 1102, 1106 (5th Cir.1993); United States v. DiCesare, 765 F.2d 890, 897, opinion amended on other grounds, 111 F.2d 543 (9th Cir.1985). We read these authorities, along with Place and Edmond, to indicate that a dog sniff around the exterior of a motor vehicle located in a public place is not a search requiring probable cause for purposes of the Fourth Amendment.
Appellants ask us to hold that Article I, Section 10 of the Minnesota Constitution, textually identical to the Fourth Amendment, requires probable cause before law enforcement may conduct a dog sniff around the exterior of a motor vehicle stopped for a routine equipment violation. We may construe a provision of the Minnesota Constitution to extend greater rights than a comparable provision in the U.S. Constitution, but we will not do so cavalierly. See State v. Carter, 596 N.W.2d 654, 657 (Minn.1999); State v. Risk, 598 N.W.2d 642, 649 (Minn.1999). A decision of the U.S. Supreme Court interpreting a provision of the federal constitution that is textually identical to a provision of the Minnesota Constitution is of inherently persuasive, although not necessarily compelling, force. State v. Fuller, 374 N.W.2d 722, 727 (Minn.1985).
On two occasions we have reached conclusions regarding Article I, Section 10 of the Minnesota Constitution that departed from decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court interpreting the substantively identical language of the Fourth Amendment and applying it to the same or similar facts. In so doing, we interpreted the Minnesota Constitution as according greater protection than the Fourth Amendment. In In re Welfare of E.D.J., we departed from Supreme Court precedent regarding when a seizure occurs, concluding that the decision in California v. Hodari D., 499 U.S. 621, 111 S.Ct. 1547, 113 L.Ed.2d 690 (1991),7 represented a sharp departure from previous decisions, and we were not persuaded that there was a need to depart from the pre-Hodari D. analysis. In re Welfare of E.D.J., 502 N.W.2d 779, 780, 783 (Minn.1993). One year later, we noted that the decision in Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444, 110 S.Ct. 2481, 110 L.Ed.2d 412 (1990), allowing the use of temporary road blocks to investigate driving under the influence, represented a radical departure from precedent. Ascher v. Comm’r of Pub. Safety, 519 N.W.2d 183, 186 (Minn.1994). Declining to follow Sitz, we reaffirmed on the basis of our state constitution the longstanding requirement in Minnesota that police need an objective individualized ar-ticulable suspicion of criminal wrongdoing before making an investigative stop. Id. at 187.
However, we perceive no sound basis on which to reject the U.S. Supreme Court’s approach to the Fourth Amendment issue presented in this case. The Court’s analysis in Place was not a radical or sharp departure from precedent. More importantly, that analysis reflects a weighing of [133]*133the government’s interest and the degree of intrusion on the individual that is consonant with this court’s approach to search and seizure analysis under the state constitution. See, e.g., Ascher, 519 N.W.2d at 186-87. Specifically, we agree that the unique nature of the investigative dog sniff under the facts of this case was “so limited both in the manner in which the information [was] obtained and in the content of the information revealed” that it does not constitute a search. Place, 462 U.S. at 707, 108 S.Ct. 2637. We therefore conclude that a dog sniff around the exterior of a legitimately stopped motor vehicle is not a search requiring probable cause on the basis of either the Fourth Amendment or the Minnesota Constitution.8 In this case the court of appeals reached the same conclusion and ended its inquiry there, and on that basis it vacated the district court’s order to suppress the evidence and dismiss the charges. Wiegand, 621 N.W.2d at 478-79. We note, however, that the Court in Place did not hold that no level of suspicion at all was required to detain the luggage; rather, the Court concluded that a reasonable, articulable suspicion of criminal activity was required to seize the luggage in order to conduct the dog sniff. Place, 462 U.S. at 702, 103 S.Ct. 2637. In this case, the court of appeals did not consider whether the degree of intrusion attendant to a dog sniff warrants some justification less than probable cause, such as a reasonable, articulable suspicion, for the government action. Because we believe that question must be answered to determine the reasonableness of the law enforcement officer’s investigative method under the state and federal constitutions, we turn to that question.9
III.
In Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 30-31, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968), the Court held that officers, on less than probable cause, could conduct a limited search for weapons of persons suspected of criminal activity. The Court in Place concluded that it was appropriate to apply the principles announced in Terry to the seizure of luggage in an airport for purposes of a dog sniff. Place, 462 U.S. at 702, 103 S.Ct. 2637. Likewise, we conclude the Terry principles are appropriately applied in this case when a motor vehicle is stopped for a routine equipment violation. See Berkemer v. McCarty, 468 U.S. 420, 439, 104 S.Ct. [134]*1343138, 82 L.Ed.2d 317 (1984) (holding routine traffic stop is relatively brief encounter and is analogous to Terry stop).
Terry authorizes us to balance the nature and quality of the intrusion into the individual’s Fourth Amendment interests against the importance of the governmental interests at stake. A person clearly has some expectation of privacy in an automobile. Ortiz, 422 U.S. at 896, 95 S.Ct. 2585; Goodrich, 256 N.W.2d at 510. We consider, then, the extent to which a dog sniff is an intrusion into that interest. The Court in Place held that the manner in which information is obtained through a dog sniff is much less intrusive than a typical search. 462 U.S. at 707, 103 S.Ct. 2637. The Court further explained in United States v. Jacobsen, 466 U.S. 109, 104 S.Ct. 1652, 80 L.Ed.2d 85 (1984), that the investigative method used there, which revealed only the presence of narcotics and nothing else, was less intrusive than a typical search. 466 U.S. at 123-24, 104 S.Ct. 1652 (citing Place, 462 U.S. at 707, 103 S.Ct. 2637). Similarly, a dog trained only in narcotics detection would alert only to narcotics and would not alert to lawful items or even to a weapon or stolen goods — items that a law enforcement officer would detect in an actual search.
However, a dog sniff around a motor vehicle stopped only for a routine equipment violation is intrusive to some degree.10 A dog sniff detects something that the public generally cannot detect, cf. Kyllo, 533 U.S. at 34, 121 S.Ct. 2038, and something that, in this case, was purposefully hidden from view. Given that there is some intrusion into privacy interests by a dog sniff, we hold that an officer cannot conduct a narcotics-detection dog sniff around a motor vehicle stopped for a routine equipment violation without some level of suspicion of illegal activity. While the officer need not have probable cause, the officer may not be motivated by “mere whim, caprice, or idle curiosity.” State v. Pike, 551 N.W.2d 919, 921-22 (Minn.1996).
What level of suspicion should apply? In some cases, courts have concluded that because Place stated that a dog sniff is not a search, no minimal threshold need be met to conduct a dog sniff around the exterior of a motor vehicle when the vehicle is otherwise legitimately detained or when the vehicle is not detained at all, as with a vehicle parked in a public parking lot. United States v. Ludwig, 10 F.3d 1523 (10th Cir.1993) (holding that dog sniff conducted around vehicles parked in motel parking lot with permission of motel owner permissible regardless of whether law enforcement had reason to suspect or detain vehicles); see also Hunnicutt, 135 F.3d 1345, 1350 (holding that dog sniff does not implicate the Fourth Amendment when conducted around automobile during legiti[135]*135mate traffic stop); Merrett v. Moore, 58 F.3d 1547, 1553 (11th Cir.1995) (holding that dog sniffs conducted -without individualized reasonable suspicion around automobiles legitimately detained at roadblocks did not violate the constitution); Seals, 987 F.2d at 1106; United States v. Morales-Zamora, 914 F.2d 200, 203 (10th Cir.1990) (holding that dog sniff around vehicles lawfully detained by law enforcement does not require an individualized reasonable suspicion); Kirkpatrick, 5 F.Supp.2d at 1059. In these cases the courts focused their attention on whether the law enforcement officer had any reasonable, articulable suspicion to justify the detention, rather than on whether the law enforcement officer had a reasonable, ar-ticulable suspicion of drug-related criminal activity that justified conducting the dog sniff.
On the other hand, some federal courts have concluded that there must be a reasonable, articulable suspicion of drug-related criminal activity before a dog sniff may be conducted. See United States v. Testing 869 F.2d 316, 323 (7th Cir.1989) (holding reasonable suspicion to stop defendant supported decision to detain baggage for exposure to dog); United States v. Quinn, 815 F.2d 153, 159 (1st Cir.1987) (concluding law enforcement required to have reasonable suspicion that car contains narcotics at moment dog sniff occurs); see also United States v. Winningham, 140 F.3d 1328, 1330-31 (10th Cir.1998).
In sum, the federal decisions are less than uniform regarding the standard to be applied to dog sniffs of motor vehicles. For our part, we read Place and Terry and our recognized, albeit limited, privacy right in a motor vehicle to require a reasonable, articulable suspicion of drug-related criminal activity before law enforcement may conduct a dog sniff around a motor vehicle stopped for a routine equipment violation in an attempt to detect the presence of narcotics. Recognizing the conflict among courts on this issue, however, we also base our decision on the changed scope of the investigation in this case, and we turn to that issue.
IV.
The officer initially stopped appellants’ car for a burned-out headlight. A limited investigative stop is lawful if there is a particularized and objective basis for suspecting the person stopped of criminal activity. State v. Smallwood, 594 N.W.2d 144, 155 (Minn.1999) (citing United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 417-18, 101 S.Ct. 690, 66 L.Edüd 621 (1981)). “[A]n investigative detention must be temporary and last no longer than is necessary to effectuate the purpose of the stop.” Florida v. Boyer, 460 U.S. 491, 500, 103 S.Ct. 1319, 75 L.Ed.2d 229 (1983). Moreover, the scope of a stop must be strictly tied to and justified by the circumstances that rendered the initiation of the investigation permissible. Smallwood, 594 N.W.2d at 155 (citing Terry, 392 U.S. at 19, 88 S.Ct. 1868). Law enforcement may continue the detention “as long as the reasonable suspicion for the detention remains * * * provided they act diligently and reasonably.” Smallwood, 594 N.W.2d at 155 (quoting State v. Moffatt, 450 N.W.2d 116, 119 (Minn.1990)). Expansion of the scope of the stop to include investigation of other suspected illegal activity is permissible under the Fourth Amendment only if the officer has reasonable, articula-ble suspicion of such other illegal activity. Terry, 392 U.S. at 20-21, 88 S.Ct. 1868; United States v. Ramos, 20 F.3d 348, 352 (8th Cir.1994) (holding consent to search was fruit of illegal detention, as it took place after the original purpose of the stop — a seat belt violation — had been accomplished).
[136]*136Several cases deal with a traffic stop that is extended in duration to allow for use of a drug-sniffing dog. See, e.g., United States v. Dortch, 199 F.3d 193, 200 (5th Cir.1999) (holding traffic stop illegally extended until drug-sniffing dogs arrived, when no reasonable suspicion defendant trafficking in drugs), opinion corrected on other grounds by 203 F.3d 883 (5th Cir. 2000); United States v. Pruitt, 174 F.3d 1215, 1221 (11th Cir.1999) (same). In these cases the courts held that extending the stop without reasonable suspicion violates the principles of Terry and suppressed the evidence. In another case, when the canine unit was already on the scene, the stop was not extended for a new purpose and the sniff was permissible. Holloman, 113 F.3d at 196; see also Dortch, 199 F.3d at 200 (noting that if canine search had been performed during initial detention, no constitutional violation).
Appellants do not argue that the stop in this case was extended in duration beyond that which would have been necessary to issue the warning ticket for the headlight. Because the officer was able to delegate the issuing of the ticket to another officer, the first officer was freed to run the dog around the car within the time necessary to resolve the basis for the initial stop. However, the reasonableness requirement of the Fourth Amendment is not concerned only with the duration of a detention, but also with its scope. See Terry, 392 U.S. at 19, 20, 88 S.Ct. 1868 (“The scope of the search must be ‘strictly tied to and justified by’ the circumstances which rendered its initiation permissible,” quoting Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294, 310, 87 S.Ct. 1642, 18 L.Ed.2d 782 (1967) (Fortas, J., concurring)); United States v. Kennedy, 573 F.2d 657, 659 (9th Cir.1978) (noting length and scope of inquiry is limited by circumstances that prompted the stop). While this court has not previously addressed this issue independently under the Minnesota Constitution, we conclude that Article I, Section 10 of the Minnesota Constitution also imposes a reasonableness limitation on both the duration and the scope of a Terry detention. See State v. Munson, 594 N.W.2d 128, 135-36 (Minn. 1999) (holding that vehicle search supported by probable cause must nonetheless be reasonable in the scope of the search and detention of the suspects).
Here, the officer had determined a citation was not warranted, and the motorist would simply be issued a warning ticket. Thus, the seriousness of the offense being investigated was decidedly minor. See Moffatt, 450 N.W.2d at 119 (distinguishing investigation of burglary from that of petty offense in determining reasonableness of detention). We stress that the officer testified he did not suspect appellants were under the influence of anything, nor did he have any indication that they were transporting drugs. Rather, the officer appeared to have used the opportunity of a routine equipment violation, along with the availability of other officers to write a warning ticket, to conduct the dog sniff. We construe the reasonableness requirement of the Fourth Amendment and Article I, Section 10 of the Minnesota Constitution to limit the scope of a Terry investigation to that which occasioned the stop, to the limited search for weapons, and to the investigation of only those additional offenses for which the officer develops a reasonable, articulable suspicion within the time necessary to resolve the originally-suspected offense.11
[137]*137Thus, in order to lawfully conduct a narcotics-detection dog sniff around the exterior of a motor vehicle stopped for a routine equipment violation, a law enforcement officer must have a reasonable, artic-ulable suspicion of drug-related criminal activity. We believe this is the appropriate application of the search and seizure limitations in the federal and state constitutions to the facts of the case before us.
We turn then to the question whether the officers had a reasonable, ar-ticulable suspicion of drug-related criminal activity in this case. While the officer testified that Wiegand was evasive, nervous and had glossy eyes, the officer also testified that he did not conclude at the point that he determined to retrieve his dog that the driver was under the influence of anything. The officer simply noted that Wiegand was acting suspiciously, but indicated no reason to suspect drug-related activity. Under these circumstances, acting suspiciously is not an articulable basis to suspect criminal activity. See State v. Johnson, 257 N.W.2d 308, 309 (Minn.1977) (concluding that stop is illegal when officer unable to articulate what aroused suspicion). Therefore, we reverse the court of appeals and reinstate the district court’s order dismissing all charges against appellants.
Reversed.