TRAYNOR, C. J.
Petitioners were convicted in the Los Angeles Municipal Court of violating a city ordinance1 restricting the right to be in a railroad station. The Appellate [847]*847Department of the Superior Court affirmed the convictions and refused to certify the ease to the Court of Appeal. (Rule 62(a), Cal. Rules of Court.) Petitioners seek a writ of habeas corpus on the ground that the ordinance unconstitutionally abridges their right of free speech.
Union Station in Los Angeles is owned by three railroad companies, the Southern Pacific, the Union Pacific, and the Santa Pe. It is a spacious area open to the community as a center for rail transportation. It also houses a restaurant, a snack bar, a cocktail lounge, and a magazine stand. Not only passengers but friends and relatives of passengers may freely enter and use the facilities of the waiting room. Entry is also free to those who seek food or drink or magazines and newspapers. There are signs posted around the station stating: “Private Property—Permission to Pass Over Revocable at Any Time. ’ ’
About 5 o’clock in the afternoon of September 5, 1966, a group of about 15 persons, including petitioners, entered the station to distribute leaflets protesting United States action in Vietnam and the impending court martial of three soldiers at Port Hood, Texas, who had refused to go to Vietnam. They hoped to communicate with soldiers who would be in the station on their return to Camp Pendleton after the Labor Day weekend. They went to the station solely to distribute leaflets and discuss their position with persons in the area. They circulated about the main entrance, the lobby, and the south patio of the station. The city concedes that they did not impede the flow of traffic to or from the station or interfere with the purchase or sale of tickets or the conduct of business by the restaurant, bar, or magazine and newspaper stand located on the premises. Although their leaflets littered the floors and seats of the lobby, the littering was by those to whom the leaflets were given.
Officer Bakken, a special officer at Union Station, observed [848]*848petitioners’ activities and stopped them outside the station master’s office in the south patio. After learning that they had no business with the railroad, he informed them that they were on private property engaged in activities prohibited by station rules. On two occasions Officer Bakken told petitioners that they would have to leave if they did not stop distributing leaflets and talking to people. He had similar conversations with other members of the group. All refused to leave, and Los Angeles police officers summoned by Officer Bakken arrested them. The trial court acquitted six of them,2 and found petitioners guilty on the ground that they were in the station without any business with a carrier and hence were loitering within the meaning of the ordinance.
The ordinance defines the law of trespass applicable to this situation. Trespass laws punish presence on property unauthorized by the possessor thereof and conclusively presume injury from that presence. [See fn. 3] The city’s contention is essentially that the railroads have consented to open their property to the general public for a limited and specific purpose only, namely, for the use of the transportation facilities offered, that petitioners admittedly came onto the property for other purposes, and that the railroads may therefore demand their removal and arrest and prosecution for trespass.3
The theory advanced by the city has been unsuccessfully [849]*849urged to justify prohibition of First Amendment activities in the public streets and parks. The city seeks to distinguish streets and parks on the ground that ‘ ‘ From time immemorial, streets, sidewalks' and parks have been held in trust for the use of the public and have been used for purposes of assembly, communicating thoughts and discussing public questions.” (Paraphrasing Hague v. C.I.O. (1939) 307 U.S. 496, 515 [83 L.Ed. 1423,1436, 59 S.Ct. 954].)
At one time it was thought that a municipality could prohibit First Amendment activities in streets and parks on the ground that they constituted an unauthorized use of such facilities. (Davis v. Massachusetts (1897) 167 U.S. 43 [42 L.Ed. 71, 17 S.Ct. 731].) The “time immemorial” from which the streets and parks have been required to be held open for First Amendment activities dates from 1939, when Hague v. C.I.O., supra, was decided.4 In a series of eases following Hague v. C.I.O., the Supreme Court determined that a regulation of First Amendment activities in streets and parks must be supported by a valid municipal interest that cannot be protected by different or more narrow means. Such activities can be regulated only to the extent necessary to prevent interference with the municipality’s interest in protecting the public health, safety, or order or in assuring the efficient and orderly use of streets and parks for their primary purposes. (See, e.g., Cox v. Louisiana (1965) 379 U.S. 536, 554-555 [13 L.Ed.2d 471, 483-484, 85 S.Ct. 453] ; Lovell v. City of Griffin (1938) 303 U.S. 444 [82 L.Ed. 949, 58 S.Ct. 666] ; Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940) 310 U.S. 296 [84 L.Ed. 1213, 60 S.Ct. 900, 128 A.L.R. 1352] ; Largent v. Texas (1943) 318 U.S. 418 [87 L.Ed. 873, 63 S.Ct. 667] ; Staub v. City of Baxley (1958) 355 U.S. 313 [2 L.Ed.2d 302, 78 S.Ct. 277] ; Schneider v. State (1939) 308 U.S. 147 [84 L.Ed. 155, 60 S.Ct. 146] ; Jamison v. Texas (1943) 318 U.S. 413 [87 L.Ed. 869, 63 S.Ct. 669] ; Niemotko v. Maryland (1950) 340 U.S. 268 [95 L.Ed. 267, 71 S.Ct. 325] ; compare, e.g., Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942) 315 U.S. 568 [86 L.Ed. 1031, 62 S.Ct 766] with Cantwell v. Connecticut, supra, and Kunz v. New York (1951) 340 U.S. 290 [95 L.Ed. 267, 280, 71 S.Ct. 312, 328] ; Feiner v. New York (1951) 340 U.S. 315 [95 L.Ed. 267, 295, 71 S.Ct. 303, 328] with Cox v. Louisiana, supra; Kovacs [850]*850v. Cooper (1949) 336 U.S. 77 [93 L.Ed. 513, 69 S.Ct. 448, 10 A.L.R.2d 608] with Saia v. New York (1948) 334 U.S. 558 [92 L.Ed. 1574, 68 S.Ct. 1148] and Wollam v.
Free access — add to your briefcase to read the full text and ask questions with AI
TRAYNOR, C. J.
Petitioners were convicted in the Los Angeles Municipal Court of violating a city ordinance1 restricting the right to be in a railroad station. The Appellate [847]*847Department of the Superior Court affirmed the convictions and refused to certify the ease to the Court of Appeal. (Rule 62(a), Cal. Rules of Court.) Petitioners seek a writ of habeas corpus on the ground that the ordinance unconstitutionally abridges their right of free speech.
Union Station in Los Angeles is owned by three railroad companies, the Southern Pacific, the Union Pacific, and the Santa Pe. It is a spacious area open to the community as a center for rail transportation. It also houses a restaurant, a snack bar, a cocktail lounge, and a magazine stand. Not only passengers but friends and relatives of passengers may freely enter and use the facilities of the waiting room. Entry is also free to those who seek food or drink or magazines and newspapers. There are signs posted around the station stating: “Private Property—Permission to Pass Over Revocable at Any Time. ’ ’
About 5 o’clock in the afternoon of September 5, 1966, a group of about 15 persons, including petitioners, entered the station to distribute leaflets protesting United States action in Vietnam and the impending court martial of three soldiers at Port Hood, Texas, who had refused to go to Vietnam. They hoped to communicate with soldiers who would be in the station on their return to Camp Pendleton after the Labor Day weekend. They went to the station solely to distribute leaflets and discuss their position with persons in the area. They circulated about the main entrance, the lobby, and the south patio of the station. The city concedes that they did not impede the flow of traffic to or from the station or interfere with the purchase or sale of tickets or the conduct of business by the restaurant, bar, or magazine and newspaper stand located on the premises. Although their leaflets littered the floors and seats of the lobby, the littering was by those to whom the leaflets were given.
Officer Bakken, a special officer at Union Station, observed [848]*848petitioners’ activities and stopped them outside the station master’s office in the south patio. After learning that they had no business with the railroad, he informed them that they were on private property engaged in activities prohibited by station rules. On two occasions Officer Bakken told petitioners that they would have to leave if they did not stop distributing leaflets and talking to people. He had similar conversations with other members of the group. All refused to leave, and Los Angeles police officers summoned by Officer Bakken arrested them. The trial court acquitted six of them,2 and found petitioners guilty on the ground that they were in the station without any business with a carrier and hence were loitering within the meaning of the ordinance.
The ordinance defines the law of trespass applicable to this situation. Trespass laws punish presence on property unauthorized by the possessor thereof and conclusively presume injury from that presence. [See fn. 3] The city’s contention is essentially that the railroads have consented to open their property to the general public for a limited and specific purpose only, namely, for the use of the transportation facilities offered, that petitioners admittedly came onto the property for other purposes, and that the railroads may therefore demand their removal and arrest and prosecution for trespass.3
The theory advanced by the city has been unsuccessfully [849]*849urged to justify prohibition of First Amendment activities in the public streets and parks. The city seeks to distinguish streets and parks on the ground that ‘ ‘ From time immemorial, streets, sidewalks' and parks have been held in trust for the use of the public and have been used for purposes of assembly, communicating thoughts and discussing public questions.” (Paraphrasing Hague v. C.I.O. (1939) 307 U.S. 496, 515 [83 L.Ed. 1423,1436, 59 S.Ct. 954].)
At one time it was thought that a municipality could prohibit First Amendment activities in streets and parks on the ground that they constituted an unauthorized use of such facilities. (Davis v. Massachusetts (1897) 167 U.S. 43 [42 L.Ed. 71, 17 S.Ct. 731].) The “time immemorial” from which the streets and parks have been required to be held open for First Amendment activities dates from 1939, when Hague v. C.I.O., supra, was decided.4 In a series of eases following Hague v. C.I.O., the Supreme Court determined that a regulation of First Amendment activities in streets and parks must be supported by a valid municipal interest that cannot be protected by different or more narrow means. Such activities can be regulated only to the extent necessary to prevent interference with the municipality’s interest in protecting the public health, safety, or order or in assuring the efficient and orderly use of streets and parks for their primary purposes. (See, e.g., Cox v. Louisiana (1965) 379 U.S. 536, 554-555 [13 L.Ed.2d 471, 483-484, 85 S.Ct. 453] ; Lovell v. City of Griffin (1938) 303 U.S. 444 [82 L.Ed. 949, 58 S.Ct. 666] ; Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940) 310 U.S. 296 [84 L.Ed. 1213, 60 S.Ct. 900, 128 A.L.R. 1352] ; Largent v. Texas (1943) 318 U.S. 418 [87 L.Ed. 873, 63 S.Ct. 667] ; Staub v. City of Baxley (1958) 355 U.S. 313 [2 L.Ed.2d 302, 78 S.Ct. 277] ; Schneider v. State (1939) 308 U.S. 147 [84 L.Ed. 155, 60 S.Ct. 146] ; Jamison v. Texas (1943) 318 U.S. 413 [87 L.Ed. 869, 63 S.Ct. 669] ; Niemotko v. Maryland (1950) 340 U.S. 268 [95 L.Ed. 267, 71 S.Ct. 325] ; compare, e.g., Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942) 315 U.S. 568 [86 L.Ed. 1031, 62 S.Ct 766] with Cantwell v. Connecticut, supra, and Kunz v. New York (1951) 340 U.S. 290 [95 L.Ed. 267, 280, 71 S.Ct. 312, 328] ; Feiner v. New York (1951) 340 U.S. 315 [95 L.Ed. 267, 295, 71 S.Ct. 303, 328] with Cox v. Louisiana, supra; Kovacs [850]*850v. Cooper (1949) 336 U.S. 77 [93 L.Ed. 513, 69 S.Ct. 448, 10 A.L.R.2d 608] with Saia v. New York (1948) 334 U.S. 558 [92 L.Ed. 1574, 68 S.Ct. 1148] and Wollam v. City of Palm Springs (1963) 59 Cal.2d 276 [29 Cal.Rptr. 1, 379 P.2d 481]. See, generally, Niemotko v. Maryland, supra, 340 U.S. 268, 275-283 [95 L.Ed. 267, 272-276, 71 S.Ct. 325].) This rule applies whether the owner of the street is a governmental body or a private one. (Tucker v. Texas (1946) 326 U.S. 517, 524 [90 L.Ed. 274, 280, 66 S.Ct. 274] ; Marsh v. Alabama (1946) 326 U.S. 501 [90 L.Ed. 265, 66 S.Ct. 276].) If" the state curtails First Amendment freedoms to protect an interest that is nonexistent, whether claimed on behalf of the government or on behalf of a private individual, it violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments. (New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964) 376 U.S. 254, 265 [11 L.Ed.2d 686, 697, 84 S.Ct. 710, 95 A.L.R.2d 1412] ; Marsh v. Alabama, supra; Tucker v. Texas, supra.)
The primary uses of municipal property can be amply protected by ordinances that prohibit activities that interfere with those uses. Similarly, the primary uses of railway stations can be amply protected by ordinances prohibiting activities that interfere with those uses. In neither ease can First Amendment activities be prohibited solely because the property involved is not maintained primarily as a forum for such activities.
In Brown v. Louisiana (1966) 383 U.S. 131 [15 L.Ed.2d 637, 86 S.Ct. 719] the defendants were Negroes who had entered the local segregated public library, asked for a book and were told the library did not have it. The librarian and a police officer then requested the defendants to leave but they refused to do so. No one else was in the library at the time. The defendants were not disorderly, but neither were they using the library facilities for their intended’ purpose. The act of sitting in the library was a protest against the library’s policy of segregation. The defendants were not noisy and did not interfere with the functioning of the library.
The majority of the Supreme Court reversed a conviction for breach of the peace on the ground that since there was no evidence of any disorder or disturbance that interfered with the use of the library for its intended purpose, the officer and the librarian had no right to request the defendants to leave. Accordingly, the defendants’ refusal to leave could not constitutionally be punished as a breach of the peace.
According to the dissenters, however, to constitute a breach [851]*851of the peace, the activity in question did not have to interfere - with the peace, order, or safety of the public or with the primary use of the library facility. In their -view, the state could treat any unauthorized use of property maintained, to perform a specific function as a. breach of the peace. The majority’s test was whether the defendants’ conduct interfered with the use of. the library; the minority’s test was whether that conduct was a library use.
Similarly in the present ease, the test is not whether petitioners’ use of. the station was. a railway use but whether it interfered with that use. -No interest of the city in the functioning of the station as a transportation terminal was infringed. Petitioners’ conduct was also unassailable under statutes aimed at protecting the city’s interest in preserving good order, cleanliness, public health, and safety. Nor did their presence violate any legitimate interest of the railroads, their patrons, or employees. It invaded no right of privacy. (Cf. Public Utilities Com. v. Pollak (1952) 343 U.S. 451 [96 L.Ed. 1068, 72 S.Ct. 813].) In this respect, a railway station is lité' a public street or park. Noise and commotion are characteristic of the normal operation of a railway station. The railroads seek neither privacy within nor exclusive possession of their station. They therefore cannot invoke the law of trespass against petitioners to protect those interests.
Nor was there any other interest that would justify prohibiting petitioners’ activities. Those activities in no way interfered with the use of the station. They did not impede the movement of passengers or trains, distract or interfere with the railroad employees’ conduct of their business, block access to ticket windows, transportation facilities or other business legitimately on the premises. Petitioners were not noisy, they created no disturbance, and did not harass patrons who did not wish to hear what they had to say.5
[852]*852Had petitioners in any way interfered with the conduct of the railroad business, they could legitimately have been asked to leave. (Cf. Adderley v. Florida (1966) 385 U.S. 39 [17 L.Ed.2d 149, 87 S.Ct. 242] ; People v. Brown (1965) 236 Cal.App.2d Supp. 915 [47 Cal.Rptr. 662] ; People v. Poe (1965) 236 Cal.App.2d Supp. 928 [47 Cal.Rptr. 670] ; People v. Green (1965) 234 Cal.App.2d Supp. 871 [44 Cal.Rptr. 438],6) Similarly, had petitioners’ acitivities conflicted with any valid municipal interest, the municipality could have proceeded against them.7
The ordinance is composed primarily of two parts. The first prohibits “loafing or loitering” in a terminal; the second prohibits remaining in a terminal longer than necessary to transact business. The obvious purpose of the second part is, as the city points out, to prevent “chaos, confusion, congested waiting rooms and littered lobbies [that] would replace the orderly business conducted in the Union Station. ’ ’ There are ways to prevent these evils and preserve the primary purpose of terminals, however, without forbidding the exercise of First Amendment freedoms within them. (Cf. Wollam v. City of Palm Springs, supra, at pp. 285-286.) Littering is subject to effective control by means less drastic (Shelton v. Tucker (1960) 364 U.S. 479, 488 [5 L.Ed.2d 231, 237, 81 S.Ct. 247]) than forbidding the distribution of leaflets altogether (Schneider v. State, supra, at p. 162 [84 L.Ed. at p. 165]). Congestion can be avoided by controls on activities [853]*853during peak hours. (See, e.g., Cottonreader v. Johnson (1966) 252 F.Supp. 492, 500 ; Hurwitt v. City of Oakland (1965) 247 F.Supp. 995 ; cf. Edwards v. South Carolina (1963) 372 U.S. 229, 236 [9 L.Ed.2d 697, 702, 83 S.Ct. 680].) Reasonable and objective limitations can be placed on the number of persons who can be present for First Amendment activities at the same time, and the persons present can be required so to place themselves as to limit disruption. (See, e.g., Hurwitt v. City of Oakland, supra.) In areas normally subject to congestion, such as ticket windows and turnstiles, First Amendment activities can be prohibited. (Cf. Adderley v. Florida, supra; People v. Brown, supra; People v. Poe, supra; People v. Green, supra.) Persons can be excluded entirely from areas where their presence would threaten personal danger or block the flow of passenger or carrier traffic, such as doorways and loading areas. (Cf. Adderley v. Florida, supra; People v. Brown, supra; People v. Green, supra.)
In short, the second part of the ordinance completely prohibits protected activities although a narrower measure would fully achieve the intended ends and at the same time preserve an effective place for the dissemination of ideas. Because of the overbreadth of coverage in this ordinance, the language prohibiting presence in a terminal longer than reasonably necessary to conduct business with a carrier is unconstitutional.8 (Cf. Elfbrandt v. Russell (1966) 384 U.S. 11 [16 L.Ed.2d 321, 86 S.Ct. 1238].)
The first part of the ordinance forbids anyone to “loaf or loiter” about a terminal. For the reasons expressed in In re Cregler (1961) 56 Cal.2d 308, 312 [14 Cal.Rptr. 289, 363 P.2d 305], we construe the phrase “loaf or loiter” to hear a “sinister or wrongful” implication. As so interpreted the first part of the ordinance is a justified police measure that protects the city’s interest in assuring public safety (cf. Gleason v. Municipal Court (1964) 226 Cal.App.2d 584, 587 [38 Cal.Rptr. 226]) without interfering with the legitimate exercise of any constitutionally protected activity.
Striking the part of the ordinance that we have held to be unconstitutional does not “vitiate the whole act.” (Danskin v. San Diego Unified School Dist. (1946) 28 Cal.2d 536, [854]*854555 [171 P.2d 885], quoting from People v.- Lewis. (1939) 13 Cal.2d 280, 284 [89 P:2d 388]Accordingly, all but the particular language we have indicated may stand.
, The trial court applied the GregUr definition of “loiter’' and found that petitioners violated’the first part of the, ordinance. The record clearly indicates that the court • reached this conclusion by finding that petitioners violated the second pkrt of the ordinance and then reasoning that they were therefore present without any “lawful purpose.” Since, the’second .part; of the ordinance 1 is broader than constitutionally permissible,' petitioners’ -convictions cannot stand under'any theory, for there is no other evidence that they were present in-Union Station for an “unlawful” purpose.
The writ is granted and the petitioners are discharged from custody. ' ' .
Peters, J., Tobriner,’ J., Mosk, J., and Sullivan, J., concurred.