[327]*327REID, Associate Judge:
These consolidated cases, involving reciprocal discipline of two members of the District of Columbia Bar, respondents Howard L. Greenspan and Leslie D. Sil-verman, require us to determine whether the Massachusetts Board of Bar Overseers and the Attorney Grievance Commission of Maryland are “disciplining court[s]” within the meaning of D.C. Bar Rule XI, § 11(a) (2005). We hold that neither the Massachusetts Board of Bar Overseers nor the Attorney Grievance Commission of Maryland is a “disciplining court” under D.C. Bar Rule XI, § 11(a) (2006); and that before reciprocal discipline may be imposed by this court for professional misconduct in another jurisdiction, an attorney admitted to practice in this jurisdiction must have been disciplined by a disciplining court outside the District, or by another court in the District. Therefore, we dismiss the reciprocal disciplinary proceeding against Mr. Greenspan. In Ms. Silverman’s case, in conformity with the Board’s recommendation, we dismiss the reciprocal proceeding against her; however, we adopt the Board’s recommendation that, in the original discipline case, Ms. Silverman be publicly censured.
FACTUAL SUMMARY
Respondent Howard Greenspan
Mr. Greenspan was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar on May 18,1979, and later became inactive. He was also admitted to the Massachusetts Bar where he remained active. On April 10, 2000, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts Board of Bar Overseers of the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts (“Board of Bar Overseers”) issued an “Order of Public Reprimand” against Mr. Greenspan as a result of a joint “stipulation of facts and disciplinary violations.” According to the stipulation, Mr. Greenspan represented a client who had been involved in three automobile accidents occurring on March 24, 1998, September 23, 1993, and June 4, 1994. He resolved the March 24, 1993 accident to the satisfaction of the client. Regarding the accident that occurred on September 23, 1993, Mr. Greenspan filed a lawsuit on September 20,1996, prior to the expiration of the statute of limitations, but failed to take any other action to advance the case. Consequently, the case was dismissed on August 4, 1998, and Mr. Greenspan made no effort to reinstate the case.1 Mr. Greenspan filed a claim with the insurance company of the driver involved in the June 4, 1994 accident. He subsequently rejected an $8,000.00 offer from the insurance company on behalf of his client, but failed to file a lawsuit relating to this accident prior to the expiration of the statute of limitations. The client retained new counsel who contacted Mr. Greenspan on December 8, 1997 and January 13, 1998, requesting the client’s files in these matters. Mr. Greenspan did not respond.
After Mr. Greenspan’s failure to respond to new counsel, the client filed a complaint with the Massachusetts Bar Counsel. Subsequently, Mr. Greenspan was charged with faffing: (1) to safeguard a copy of the complainant’s contingent fee agreement, in violation of Massachusetts Disciplinary Rule (“Mass. DR”) 2-106;2 (2) to prosecute an action for the September 23, 1993 [328]*328accident and causing it to be dismissed and failing to file suit for the June 4, 1994 accident within the three-year statute of limitations, in violation of Mass. DR 6-101(A)(3)3 and Mass. DR 7-101(A)(l)-(3);4 (3) to comply with the client’s request that the case be forwarded to new counsel, in violation of Mass. DR 2-110(A)(4) and Rule 1.16(d) of Massachusetts Rules of Professional Conduct;5 and (4) to cooperate with the Massachusetts Bar Counsel, in violation of Rules 4:01, § 3(l)(b) and 8.4(g) of the Massachusetts Rules of Professional Conduct.6 The Massachusetts Bar Counsel had difficulty getting Mr. Greenspan to respond, even to a subpoena. Eventually, Mr. Greenspan retained counsel and stipulated to his violations of the Massachusetts Rules on Professional Conduct. He also waived his right to a public hearing and agreed to dispose of the matter by imposition of a public reprimand. On February 14, 2000, the Board of Bar Overseers accepted the joint recommendation for a public reprimand based on Mr. Greenspan’s and the Massachusetts Bar Counsel’s stipulation of facts and disciplinary violations. On April 20, 2000, the Board of Bar Overseers entered an order publicly reprimanding Mr. Greenspan.
[329]*329On December 3, 2002, Bar Counsel filed with this court a certified copy of the order of the Board of Bar Overseers. On December 19, 2002, this court issued an order directing Bar Counsel to inform the Board of her position concerning reciprocal discipline; and directing Mr. Greenspan thereafter to show cause before the Board why identical, greater, or lesser reciprocal discipline should not be imposed. Mr. Greenspan did not respond to the December 19th order of this court. However, earlier, he had sent an undated letter, which Bar Counsel received on April 17, 2002, confirming his intention not to contest the issues that resulted in the Board of Bar Overseers’ public reprimand. Mr. Greenspan also stated that he wished to resolve this matter in a way “which does not result in additional hearings if possible.”
On January 16, 2003, Bar Counsel informed the Board of her position pertaining to reciprocal discipline, and on July 30, 2004, the Board issued its Report and Recommendation. A majority of the Board recommended that “non-identical reciprocal discipline of a 30-day suspension” be imposed on Mr. Greenspan. Three members of the Board dissented, taking the position that the reciprocal proceeding should have been dismissed, with Bar Counsel having the option of deciding whether or not to bring an original proceeding.
Respondent Leslie Silverman
Ms. Silverman was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar on October 2, 1995, and previously had been admitted to practice in Maryland. Her case consists of two consolidated matters — an original jurisdiction proceeding arising from her failure to respond to the District’s Bar Counsel, and a reciprocal proceeding arising out of a reprimand issued by the Maryland Attorney Grievance Commission (“Attorney Grievance Commission.”).
In the original proceeding, Bar Counsel filed a Specification of Charges and a Petition Instituting Formal Disciplinary Proceedings on July 14, 2003, alleging that Ms. Silverman violated the following Rules of Professional Conduct: Rule 8.1(b)7— failure “to respond reasonably to a lawful demand for information from a disciplinary authority”;8 Rule 8.4(d)9 — “engaging in] and continu[ing] to engage in conduct that seriously interfered with the administration of justice”; and D.C. Bar R. XI, § 2(b)(3)10 — failure “to comply with an[ ] order of the [c]ourt or the Board.” In a letter dated August 11, 2003, Ms. Silver-man acknowledged that she received Bar Counsel’s request for information and failed to respond in a timely manner. She also explained that after receiving Bar Counsel’s first request, she contacted her former law firm to retrieve the file related to the underlying complaint.
[330]*330On September 10, 2003, Hearing Committee Number 10 held a hearing on the charges lodged against Ms. Silverman. She was called as Bar Counsel’s witness. She testified but did not provide any exhibits or call any witnesses in her defense, and was not represented by counsel. After the hearing, the Committee requested post-hearing briefs according to the briefing schedule prescribed by Board Rule 12.1. Ms. Silverman failed to file her post-hearing brief in a timely manner, but filed proposed findings and conclusions on November 4, 2003, without submitting a request to file out of time. Therefore, the Committee did not consider her submission. On November 17, 2003, the Committee found that Ms. Silverman violated D.C. Bar R. XI, § 2(b)(3), and Rules 8.1(b) and 8.4(d) of the Rules of Professional Conduct.
In the Attorney Grievance Commission case, Ms. Silverman failed to respond to three separate requests for information concerning ethical complaints. Ultimately, Ms. Silverman and Maryland Bar Counsel agreed that her failure to respond to the complaints violated Rule 8.1(b)11 of the Maryland Rules of Professional Conduct and filed a joint petition for public reprimand with the Attorney Grievance Commission. Ms. Silverman also entered into a Consolidated Diversion Agreement (CDA) pursuant to Maryland Rule 16-763. By letter dated December 22, 2003, the Attorney Grievance Commission directed the Maryland Bar Counsel to issue a reprimand. Ms. Silverman did not advise the District’s Bar Counsel of her Maryland discipline, but Bar Counsel received a letter, dated January 13, 2004, from the Maryland Assistant Bar Counsel advising her of the reprimand.
After Bar Gounsel informed this court of Ms. Silverman’s discipline, we issued an order on February 19, 2004, directing the Board to recommend whether identical, greater, or lesser reciprocal discipline should be imposed, or whether the Board elects to proceed de novo. The Board opted for reciprocal discipline, and Ms. Silverman was ordered to show cause before the Board why identical, greater, or lesser discipline should not be imposed.
On April 20, 2004, Bar Counsel urged the Board to recommend a thirty-day suspension rather than a public reprimand in the reciprocal discipline case, and indicated that she was not opposed to a stay with conditions. On December 17, 2004, the Board issued its Report and Recommendation. A majority of the Board recommended a sanction of public censure in the original proceeding; and in the reciprocal matter concluded that the Maryland Grievance Commission’s “orders cannot be the basis for reciprocal discipline under D.C. Bar R. XI, § 11.” Thus, the Board “order[ed] that the reciprocal matter, No. 045-04, be dismissed.” Two members of the Board concurred with the recommended discipline in the original proceeding, but dissented with respect to the reciprocal matter, disagreeing with the majority’s analysis of “disciplining court” as that phrase is used in D.C. Bar R. XI, § 11.
ANALYSIS
The issue we confront in the reciprocal discipline cases is whether discipline has [331]*331been ordered in the foreign jurisdiction by an entity identified in D.C. Bar R. XI, § 11, as a “disciplining court.” Section 11(a) defines “disciplining court” as follows:
[(1)] any court of the United States as defined in Title 28, Section 451 of the United States Code, [(2)] the highest court of any state, territory, or possession of the United States, and [(3)] any other agency or tribunal with authority to disbar or suspend an attorney from the practice of law in any state, territory, or possession of the United States.
D.C. Bar R. XI, § 11(a). Moreover, Rule XI, §§ 11(b), (c), (d), (e), and (h) all use the phrase “by a disciplining court outside the District of Columbia or by another court in the District of Columbia.”
Summary of Board (Majority and Minority) and Bar Counsel Views
At oral argument, the Board asked this court to “adopt an expansive and dynamic approach” to interpreting the definition of disciplining court, mainly because disciplinary systems are “evolving around the country” and are delegating to their judicially created boards and committees the power to reprimand and otherwise sanction attorneys. The Board took the position that “highest court” as used in Rule XI, § 11(a), means “highest court of a state exercising its disciplinary authority in whatever fashion the jurisdiction chooses,” including disciplining bodies which have been delegated authority to discipline attorneys. The Board argued that the third category in Rule XI, § 11(a) — “any other agency or tribunal with authority to disbar or suspend” — was not entirely clear and could be interpreted as an “agency or tribunal of the highest court” or a separate agency or tribunal.
As reflected in Mr. Greenspan’s case and that of Ms. Silverman (as well as another case which will be mentioned later in this opinion), the Board is not unanimous concerning the interpretation of Rule XI, § 11(a), nor how the majority’s test regarding the term “disciplining court” should be applied. In its report pertaining to Mr. Greenspan’s case, the Board majority developed a three-part test to determine whether an administrative body is a “disciplining court”: “1) the administrative body imposing discipline is a part of an attorney disciplinary system; 2) the administrative body is exercising disciplinary authority pursuant to rules or regulations by a court which itself has the authority to disbar or suspend attorneys in the jurisdiction; and 3) the administrative body’s imposition of discipline is consistent with that delegated authority.” The Board majority12 concluded that the Board of Bar Overseers is a “disciplining court” under this test because its authority to administer the system of attorney discipline remains under the jurisdiction and control of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, which has chosen to streamline its disciplinary system by delegating authority in attorney disciplinary matters to the Board of Bar Overseers. If the Board of Bar Overseers decides that a proceeding should be terminated by imposition of a suspension or disbarment, it must file an Information with the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, which reviews the recommendation and determines whether to sustain or reject it. The Board majority contended that discipline by the Board of Bar Overseers has the same force and effect as if the discipline had been imposed by the [332]*332Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. The majority also declared that the third category of Rule XI, § 11(a) “does not preclude a finding that the disciplinary actions of judicially created entities should be given effect as reciprocal discipline in this jurisdiction.”
Three members of the Board dissented13 in the Greenspan case, contending that “[n]o provision of D.C. Bar R. XI allows [the Board] to impose discipline in a reciprocal discipline proceeding if the foreign discipline [w]as issued from a body that is not a ‘disciplining court.’ ” (Emphasis in original.) The Board of Bar Overseers does not fit into any of the categories of the definition — it is not itself the highest court of Massachusetts and is not an agency or tribunal with the authority to disbar or suspend. The dissenters determined that reading the “highest court of any state” to include “a ‘creature[] of the Court’ ” was too broad.14 They maintained that “an entity is a ‘disciplining court’ only if it falls within the language of D.C. Bar R. XI, § 11(a): it must either be a court, or, if it is some other kind of tribunal or entity, it must itself have authority to suspend or disbar.” (emphasis in original).
In its brief in the Greenspan case, Bar Counsel agreed with the Board majority’s Greenspan test and with the Board’s determination that the Board of Bar Overseers should be considered a “disciplining court” pursuant to Rule XI, § 11(a). Bar Counsel appeared willing to base that conclusion on either the second or third prong of § 11(a), but seemed to prefer the third prong.
In its report for Ms. Silverman’s case, the majority of the Board15 asserted that the Greenspan test “was not adopted as a comprehensive statement of the methodology for determining whether ‘disciplinary court’ status should be accorded a foreign administrative body” which exercises its authority from the highest court but which does not have the authority to disbar or suspend.16 The Board majority contended [333]*333that disciplining court status instead “should be accorded only to administrative bodies, like the Massachusetts Board of Bar Overseers, that satisfy the prerequisite three prongs of the Greenspan test, but also have the powers, duties and regular functions to justify the presumption its orders would have under D.C. Bar R. XI, § 11(c).”17 The Maryland Attorney Grievance Commission, the Board majority stated, is different because it “functions more like a prosecutor’s office or a grand jury” since the Commission “supervises the prosecutorial activities of Maryland Bar Counsel” and if the Commission petitions the Maryland Court of Appeals “for disciplinary or remedial action, the Commission ceases to operate like an adjudicator” and “stands as the petitioner in such cases, with the actual prosecution usually conducted by Bar Counsel.” Therefore, the Board majority took the position that the Maryland Attorney Grievance Commission’s orders cannot be the basis for reciprocal discipline. As the Board majority said: “The Board’s decision in Greenspan was not intended to reach orders issued by prosecutors, rather than adjudicators, in the disciplinary system.” It should be noted that in its analysis, the Board majority recognizes that there may be entities which are akin neither to the Maryland Attorney Grievance Commission, nor to the Massachusetts Board of Overseers:
Of course, given the very diverse array of disciplinary systems in this country, the Board may well encounter bodies in the future that fall somewhere in between the Massachusetts Board of Overseers and the Maryland Grievance Commission. The Maryland Grievance Commission, however, falls at one pole and its orders cannot be the basis for [334]*334reciprocal discipline under D.C. Bar R. XI, § 11. Accordingly, the Board orders that the reciprocal matter, No. 045-04, be dismissed.
(footnote omitted).
Bar Counsel disagreed with the majority of the Board and maintained that the Attorney Grievance Commission should be considered a disciplining court. At oral argument, Bar Counsel expressed concern about its case load, and stated that since another jurisdiction has delegated some authority to its board to reprimand, Bar Counsel should not have to spend its resources to bring an original action against the attorney.
In its dissent from the Board majority’s Report and Recommendation regarding the interpretation of “disciplining court,” the Board minority emphasized that under the Greenspan test, the Maryland Attorney Grievance Commission is a “disciplining court” and thus reciprocal discipline should have been imposed because had Ms. Silverman “contested either the liability or sanction,” the charges would have been heard by a circuit court and “finally adjudicated before the Maryland Court of Appeals,” the decisions of which would have been given deference in this jurisdiction. Thus, the minority declared, the Board majority’s decision not to impose reciprocal discipline “creates a conundrum: because [Ms. Silverman] was adjudicated by consent rather than in a contested proceeding, Bar Counsel must now commit the resources necessary to bring an original matter against her or [she] will not be subject to any sanction in the District of Columbia,” which is not the intent of Rule XI. The Board minority argued that (1) “the Board is bound as a matter of stare decisis to follow the three-part test ... announced in [Greenspan]”; (2) the Greenspan decision is the right result under statutory construction when one applies common sense; (3) the Maryland Attorney Grievance Commission operates like our Board and has the same functions as our Board and operates the same, except for the processing a petition for disciplinary action, which in both jurisdictions protects an attorney’s right to due process; therefore the majority’s “fundamental concern, that inclusion of the Maryland Commission (but not the Massachusetts Board in Greenspan) within the ambit of Rule XI would violate due process ... is misplaced”; and (4) since “reciprocal cases are consuming more and more resources in our disciplinary system, ... [t]he Board should ... find solutions that, while fully compliant with the demands of due process, are expeditious and not overly burdensome.” 18
[335]*335
Applicable Legal Principles
Typically, we are obligated to “accept the findings of fact made by the Board unless they are unsupported by substantial evidence of record, and [to] adopt the recommended disposition of the Board unless to do so would foster a tendency toward inconsistent dispositions for comparable conduct or would otherwise be unwarranted.” D.C. Bar R. XI, § 9(g)(1) (2005); In re Bailey, 883 A.2d 106, 115 (D.C.2005) (internal quotation marks omitted). However, “ ‘in the final analysis, the responsibility to discipline lawyers is the court’s.’ ” In re Sims, 844 A.2d 353, 360 (D.C.2004) (quoting In re Edwards, 808 A.2d 476, 482 (D.C.2002)).
Generally, our review in uncontested disciplinary cases is limited and the presumption is in favor of identical reciprocal discipline, unless the respondent demonstrates, or the court finds on the face of the record, by clear or convincing evidence, that one or more of the five exceptions set forth in D.C. Bar R. XI, § 11(c) applies.19 However, in these consolidated cases, we are faced with an issue of first impression: whether the Attorney Grievance Commission (Maryland) and the Board of Bar Overseers (Massachusetts) are “disciplining courts” within the meaning of Rule XI, § 11(a). We review issues of statutory and regulatory construction and legal issues of first impression de novo. In re Estate of Green, 816 A.2d 14, 16 (D.C.2003); In re Marshall, 762 A.2d 530, 536 (D.C.2000).
‘“The primary and general rule of statutory construction is that the intent of the lawmaker [or drafter] is to be found in the language that he has used.’ ” Varela v. Hi-Lo Powered Stirrups, 424 A.2d 61, 64-65 (D.C.1980) (en banc) (quoting United States v. Goldenberg, 168 U.S. 95, 102-03, 18 S.Ct. 3, 42 L.Ed. 394 (1897)). “ ‘In interpreting a statute [or rule], we are mindful of the maxim that we must look first to its language; if the words are clear and unambiguous, we must give effect to its plain meaning.’ ” McPherson v. United States, 692 A.2d 1342, 1344 (D.C.1997) (quoting J. Parreco & Son v. Rental Hous. Comm’n, 567 A.2d 43, 45 (D.C.1989) (citing Office of People’s Counsel v. Public Serv. Comm’n, 477 A.2d 1079, 1083 (D.C.1984))); see also District of Columbia v. Place, 892 A.2d 1108, 1111 (D.C.2006) (“It is axiomatic that the words of the statute should be construed according to their ordinary sense and with the meaning commonly attributed to them.”) (citations and internal quotations omitted). “Like the rule for statutory construction, ‘words of a [rule] should be construed according to their ordinary sense and with the meaning commonly attributed to them.’” Washington v. United States, 884 A.2d 1080, 1096 (D.C.2005) (alteration in original) (quoting Thompson v. District of Columbia, 863 A.2d 814, 817-18 (D.C.2004) (citation and internal quotations omitted)). [336]*336“[C]ourts are bound to give effect to the literal meaning [of a statute or rule] without consulting other indicia of intent or meaning when the meaning of the statutory [or regulatory] text itself is ‘plain’ or ‘clear and unambiguous,’” McPherson v. United States, 692 A.2d 1342, 1345 (D.C.1997) (other internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting 2A Sutherland, Statutes and Statutory Construction § 46.04, at 98 (5th ed. 1992)), particularly where the language is very clear. See In re M.M.D., 662 A.2d 837, 855 (D.C.1995) (“[T]he less plain the statutory [or regulatory] language is, the more likely the focus on legislative intent or statutory purpose will be determinative; and the less clear the answer is to the historical inquiry about how the legislature [or drafters] would have answered the unconsidered question, the more likely an analysis based on general statutory [or regulatory] purpose will be conclusive.”) (citation omitted).
Application of Legal Principles
We turn to an application of these statutory (and regulatory) interpretive principles. In order to impose reciprocal discipline under D.C. Bar Rule XI, § 11, there must be a determination of professional misconduct by the “disciplining court” of a foreign jurisdiction, or by another court in the District of Columbia. See D.C. Bar R. XI, §§ 11(a), (b), (c), and (d), (e) and (h). The drafters of the Rule XI, § 11(a) (this court),20 identified three types of disciplining courts whose discipline the District of Columbia will reciprocate: (1) “any court of the United States as defined in Title 28, Section 451 of the United States Code”; (2) “the highest court of any state, territory, or possession of the United States”; and (3) “any other agency or tribunal with authority to disbar or suspend an attorney from the practice of law in any state, territory, or possession of the United States.” Examining the types of courts listed above and relying on the clear and unambiguous words of Rule XI, § 11(a), it is apparent that this court limited the imposition of reciprocal discipline to cases where foreign courts, tribunals or agencies have actual authority to disbar or suspend an attorney.
The parties do not raise any question concerning the interpretation of the first prong of Rule XI, § 11(a): “any court of the United States as defined in Title 28, Section 451 of the United States Code.” Under 28 U.S.C. § 451, the term “court of the United States” “includes the Supreme Court of the United States, courts of appeals, district courts ... [28 USCS §§ 81 et seq.], including the Court of International Trade and any court created by Act of Congress the judges of which are entitled to hold office during good behavior.” Such courts have the authority to disbar and suspend attorneys from practice before their respective jurisdictions. In re Snyder, 472 U.S. 634, 645, 105 S.Ct. 2874, 86 L.Ed.2d 504 (1985) (“Federal courts admit and suspend attorneys as an exercise of their inherent power; the standards imposed are a matter of federal law.”); see also In re Lyles, 714 A.2d 120 (D.C.1998) (per curiam) (identical reciprocal discipline of disbarment imposed where attorney was disbarred by the United States District Court for the District of Maryland for misconduct arising from bankruptcy matters.); In re Bielec, 755 A.2d 1018, 1022 (D.C.2000) (per curiam) (“We acknowledge that the bankruptcy court is a disciplining [337]*337court within the meaning of Rule XI, § 11(a), as judges of that tribunal have the authority to suspend or disallow attorneys from appearing before it.”).
The diverse views relating to the interpretation of § 11(a) center on the second and third prongs of that section. The Board majority apparently looked primarily to the second prong of § 11(a) — “the highest court of any state, territory, or possession of the United States,” contending in its report on the Greenspan matter that it is a proper “[i]nterpret[ation of] the term ‘disciplining court’ to include the discipline imposed by the lower-level disciplining arm of the highest state court, or a court with ultimate attorney discipline authority .... ” The Greenspan dissenters, however, argued that: “The Board of Bar Overseers may well exercise authority delegated by the highest court of Massachusetts, and the delegated authority that the Board exercises may well be adjudicative (or quasi-judicial), but the Board is not itself the highest court of Massachusetts. And the Board of Bar Overseers also is not an ‘agency or tribunal with authority to disbar or suspend an attorney’ from the practice of law in Massachusetts.” In the Silverman case, the Board majority declared that the Attorney Grievance Commission was not a “disciplining court” under Rule XI, § 11(a), while those who dissented regarding this conclusion invoked “common sense” to contend that under the second prong of § 11(a), the Attorney Grievance Commission is a “disciplining court”: “Common sense suggests that [this court] fully intended that authorized delegates of a state’s highest court charged with conducting disciplinary proceedings for that court and subject to the court’s supervision and review should be considered as part of that court for purposes of the ‘disciplining court’ definition.”
Bar Counsel in its brief emphasized the Board majority’s secondary conclusion in the Greenspan case regarding the interpretation of Rule XI, § ll(a)’s third prong — “any other agency or tribunal with authority to disbar or suspend an attorney from the practice of law in any state, territory, or possession of the United States.” As the Board majority stated:
[A] fair reading of § 11(a) is that the qualifier following the third category is intended to include as a “disciplining court” only those non-judicial entities that are authorized to impose disbarment or suspension on attorneys practicing before them. That interpretation, while consistent with the meaning of D.C. Bar XI, § 11(a), does not preclude a finding that the disciplinary actions of judicially created entities should be given effect as reciprocal discipline in this jurisdiction.
Bar Counsel then generally agreed with the Board majority, adding:
Unlike the minority, Bar Counsel submits that the third prong of the “disciplining court” definition ... is really meant to disqualify from the definition those agencies or tribunals of the federal government and the states which may have authority to disbar or suspend an attorney from practice before that agency or tribunal, but do not have authority to disbar or suspend an attorney from the practice of law in any state, territory, or possession of the United States. Conversely, the third prong would include such entities as the Virginia State Bar Disciplinary Board ... which, although a creation of the Virginia Supreme Court, itself has authority to suspend or revoke (ie., disbar) an attorney from the practice of law in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Thus, it is not impossible that a judicially-created disciplining body might have authority as a disciplining court under more than one prong of the definition.
[338]*338Consequently, Bar Counsel believes that the term reciprocal discipline by a “disciplining court” should “include the discipline imposed by the lower-level disciplining arm of the highest state court, or a court with ultimate disciplinary authority.” These diverse views within the Board, added to Bar Counsel’s views, portend difficulty achieving consensus on whether a particular lower level state body fits the definition of a disciplining court. As the Board acknowledged in its report on the Silverman case, there are other lower level bodies in state disciplinary systems that resemble neither the Board of Bar Overseers nor the Attorney Grievance Commission.
Based upon our review of these cases, the varying positions of the Board majority and minority and the views of Bar Counsel, and the principles of statutory and regulatory interpretation, we conclude that the words of Rule XI, § 11(a) cannot and should not be interpreted broadly and expansively as advocated by the Board majority in the Greenspan case. Moreover, neither the drafting history of § 11(a), nor our past decisions afford support for the Board majority’s interpretation of the rule.
The Second and Third Prongs of Rule XI, § 11(a)
The second prong of Rule XI, § 11(a) identifies “the highest court of any state, territory, or possession of the United States” as a “disciplining court.” These highest courts of states have the power to disbar or suspend an attorney from the practice of law.21 The words used in the second prong are “clear and unambiguous,” McPherson, supra, 692 A.2d at 1344. Therefore, “we must give effect to [their] plain meaning.” Id. Given the “ordinary sense” of these words and “the meaning commonly attributed to them,” Place, supra, 892 A.2d at 1111, “highest court” does not mean a lower level entity to which authority has been delegated by the highest court. Had the drafters of the second prong intended “highest court” to include such entities, they easily could have said “the highest court of any state, or any lower level body to which the highest court has delegated authority to disbar or suspend an attorney,” but they did not. Thus, while the Board of Bar Overseers and the Attorney Grievance Commission have been delegated authority by their respective jurisdictions to recommend suspension or disbarment, they are not the highest court of a state, nor can they actually disbar or suspend an attorney from practicing law in their respective jurisdictions. See Mass. Sup. Jud. Ct. R. 4:01, § 5(3); Md. R. 16-721.
Similarly, the words of the third prong of Rule XI, § 11(a) are clear and unambiguous: “any other agency or tribu[339]*339nal with authority to disbar or suspend an attorney from the practice of law in any state, territory, or possession of the United States.” This third prong generally has been limited to agencies or tribunals with powers identical to those in the second prong, that is, the power or authority to disbar or suspend an attorney from the practice of law in the jurisdiction. Our past cases reveal that we have been fairly careful to limit this third prong to bodies that may disbar or suspend an attorney from practice in the jurisdiction. In In re Soininen, 853 A.2d 712, 729 (D.C.2004), we determined that the United States Immigration Court, which could only suspend or disbar an attorney from practicing before immigration tribunals, was not a “disciplining court” which could suspend or disbar an attorney from practicing before “any state, territory, or possession of the United States,” nor was it a federal court under 28 U.S.C. § 451. In re Webster, 661 A.2d 144, 148 (D.C.1995), was an unusual case involving whether foreign islands could be deemed a “territory.” We focused on the “nexus between the judiciary of the United States and that of Palau [formerly the Palau Islands, in the West Pacific], the fact that the justices of the Palauan High Court are appointed by the Secretary of Interior of the United States, and the language provided in Palau’s Rules of Admission” to find “no valid reason for not treating” Palau as a territory under Rule XI, § 11(a). Although the majority in In re Shelnutt, 694 A.2d 89 (D.C.1997) disposed of a reciprocal matter on non-ripeness grounds, the dissent stated:
Bar Counsel concedes ... that the Fifth District Committee of the Virginia State Bar, which issued the reprimand, has no authority to disbar an attorney or to suspend an attorney from practice. Accordingly, it is not a “disciplining court” within the meaning of D.C. Bar R. XI, § 11(a), and this court is without authority to impose reciprocal discipline.
Id. at 90 (Schwelb, J. dissenting). The Board in its Greenspan report identified other cases involving a District Subcommittee of the Virginia State Bar where we imposed reciprocal discipline, but acknowledges that in some of those cases neither the respondent nor Bar Counsel took exception to the Board’s recommendation. See In re Bland, 749 A.2d 750 (D.C.2000) (per curiam); In re Steinberg, 720 A.2d 900, 901 (D.C.1998) (per curiam); In re McGann, 666 A.2d 489 (D.C.1995) (per curiam). In the Drury cases, also cited by the Board in its Greenspan report, no question was raised concerning a “disciplining court” as used in section 11(a), nor did we address the matter, and we were focused on other issues, In re Drury, 683 A.2d 465 (D.C.1996) (Drury II); In re Drury, 638 A.2d 60 (D.C.1994) (per cu-riam) (Drury I).
The Board urges on us at least its position that, pursuant to Mass. Sup. Jud. Ct. Rule 4:01, § 4, the Board of Bar Overseers is delegated the sole power to issue public reprimands and to do so as an arm of the highest court (unlike the Attorney Grievance Commission, where either the Commission or the highest court may issue public reprimands, pursuant to Md. Rule 16 — 721(a)(3)).22 The Board maintains that Massachusetts’ highest court has chosen to streamline its disciplinary system by delegating authority in attorney disei-[340]*340pline matters to the Board of Bar Overseers and argues that the Board of Bar Overseers qualifies as a “disciplining court” as long as it imposes discipline pursuant to the body of regulations issued by a state court with the ultimate disciplining authority.23 However, under the plain words or ordinary meaning of § 11(a), all disciplining bodies mentioned — federal courts, highest courts, and agencies and tribunals — either have or must themselves have the authority to disbar or suspend an attorney from the practice of law in the jurisdiction before reciprocal discipline can be imposed. Under the doctrines of nosci-tur a sociis and ejusdem generis, “the meaning of a word is or may be known from the accompanying words so that, under the rules, general and specific words, capable of analogous meaning, when associated together, take color from each other, so that general words are restricted to a sense analogous to less general.” District of Columbia v. Estate of Parsons, 590 A.2d 133, 137 n. 5 (D.C.1991) (citations and internal quotation marks omitted).24 In Section 11(a), the words “highest court of any state” and “any other agency or tribunal with authority to disbar or suspend” take color from each other so that “highest court of any state” is understood to mean having the authority to disbar or suspend an attorney from the practice of law in the jurisdiction. Thus, the drafters’ intent was to restrict reciprocal discipline to only these categories of courts or tribunals or agencies which share the ultimate power to suspend and disbar an attorney from the practice of law.
The Drafting History of Rule XI, § 11(a)
The Board argues that interpreting “ ‘disciplining court’ to include dis[341]*341cipline imposed by the lower-level disciplining arm of the highest state court, or a court with ultimate attorney discipline authority” is consistent with the drafting history of the provision. However, “[w]hen a legislature defines the language it uses, its definition is binding upon the court.” 1A NoRman J. SingeR, SutherlaNd Statutes and Statutory Construction § 20:8 (6th ed. 2002); see also District of Columbia v. Jerry M., 717 A.2d 866, 871 (D.C.1998). Here, this court, acting in a quasi-legislative capacity, defined the term “disciplining courts.” As we have said, section 11, including section 11(a), is quite clear and unambiguous and, “the [more] plain the statutory [or regulatory] language is, the [less] likely the focus on legislative intent or statutory purpose will be determinative,” In re supra, 662 A.2d at 855. Thus, we are not required to examine the legislative history. See Peoples Drug Stores, Inc. v. District of Columbia, 470 A.2d 751, 754 (D.C.1983). Yet, “while ‘[the] plain meaning of the words is generally the most persuasive evidence of the intent of the legislature, ... the plain meaning rule has limitations.’” Varela, supra, 424 A.2d at 65 (D.C.1980) (first alteration added) (quoting District of Columbia Nat’l Bank v. District of Columbia, 121 U.S.App. D.C. 196, 198, 348 F.2d 808, 810 (1965) (citations omitted)). “[S]ince the judicial function is to ascertain the legislative intention[,] the Court may properly exercise that function with recourse to the legislative history, and may depart from the literal meaning of the words when at variance with the intention of the legislature as revealed by legislative history.” Id.; see also In re McBride, 602 A.2d 626, 637 n. 20 (D.C.1992) (“Because the Board on Professional Responsibility and this court have broad supervisory powers over attorney discipline, our joint function is similar to that of an administrative agency construing its enabling statute. Although this analogy is far from perfect, we believe we should be prepared in disciplinary cases, more readily than in other types of proceedings, to re-examine in light of our experience whether prior interpretations accord with legislative intent.”). Thus, it is instructive to examine the drafting history of Rule XI, § 11(a).
On September 20, 1985, the draft version of the Rule XI of the Disciplinary Rules’s Section 11.1, entitled “Notification,” stated:
It shall be the duty of Bar Counsel to obtain copies of all orders of discipline from other disciplining courts. Upon learning that an attorney subject to the disciplinary jurisdiction of the disciplinary order, Bar Counsel shall obtain a certified copy of the disciplinary order and file it with the Board and with this Court. In addition, any attorney subject to disciplinary action by a court outside the District of Columbia or by another court in the District of Columbia shall promptly inform Bar Counsel of such action.
(Emphasis added.) This section was renumbered as 11(a) and this court published the proposed revision of the Board of Governors of the District of Columbia Bar in The Daily Washington Law Reporter, Vol. 116, No. 28 at 2703 (Dec. 27, 1988). The proposed revision did not define the term “disciplining courts.” The Board of Governors’s proposed revision to section 11(c) stated:
Upon receipt of a certified copy of an order demonstrating that an attorney subject to the disciplinary jurisdiction of this Court has been subjected to professional disciplinary action outside the District of Columbia or by another court in the District of Columbia, the Board shall promptly recommend to the Court whether reciprocal discipline should be imposed.
[342]*342Id. at 2704 (emphasis added). This section does not use the term “disciplining court.” On February 24, 1989, the Board on Professional Responsibility and the Board of Governors submitted Joint Comments. In the Joint Comments, both Boards addressed reciprocal discipline and asserted:
Throughout this Section, there are references to discipline imposed by “other courts” as the basis for reciprocal discipline here. In other jurisdictions, however (as in this one in the case of a public reprimand), a body other than a court may issue final discipline, and we believe that such administrative orders of discipline in other jurisdictions should provide the same basis for reciprocal discipline here as a court order....
Accordingly, we recommend that the phrase “other disciplining authorities” be substituted for “other disciplining courts” in the first sentence of Section 11(a); that “another disciplining authority” be substituted for “another court” in the second sentence of Section 11(a); that “a final determination by a disciplining authority” be substituted for “final adjudication by a court” in the last sentence of Section (b); and that “disciplining authority5’ be substituted for “disciplining court” in the first sentence of Section 11(e).
After considering the petition and comments, this court amended the rules and added a “Definition” subsection (which became 11(a)) before the “Notification” subsection (which became 11(b)). The definition section read:
(a) Definition. As used in this section, “disciplining court” shall include any court of the United States as defined in Title 28, Section 451 of the United States Code, the highest court of any state, territory, or possession of the United States, and any other agency or tribunal with authority to disbar or suspend an attorney from the practice of law in any state, territory or possession of the United States.
The Daily Washington Law ReporteR, Vol. 117, No. 145, 1569 at 1575 (July 31, 1989). The remaining subsections used the term “disciplining courts.” This court addressed “bod[ies] other than courts that may issue final discipline” (such as disbarment and suspensions) by adding the third category and declined to adopt the Boards’ joint recommendation to change “disciplining courts” to “disciplining authority” in order to encompass “bod[ies] other than the courts that may issue [‘a public reprimand’].” Id.
The maxim of statutory construction, ex-pressio unius est exclusio alterius, which means “the express inclusion of one (or more) thing(s) implies the exclusion of other things from similar treatment,” Castellon v. United States, 864 A.2d 141, 149 (D.C.2004) (emphasis in original) (citation and internal quotation marks omitted), further supports the conclusion that “lower-level disciplining arm[s] of the highest state court” were excluded from the definition of “disciplining courts.”
[This court] applfies] the maxim with a considerable measure of caution, since legislative omission does not always reflect intentional preclusion. The maxim is only an aid to statutory construction, and therefore is subordinate to clear and contrary evidence of [legislative] intent. The maxim’s force turns on whether, considering the statutory structure and legislative history, we can be confident that the draftsman, in expressing one thing, would have likely considered alternatives.
Id. (emphasis added) (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). The structure of section 11 changed to address the term “disciplining court” and its definition became the first subpart of the section. [343]*343The drafting history of the section shows that the court clearly considered the Joint Comments recommending that the term “disciplining courts” be changed to “disciplining authority” to encompass “bod[ies] other than courts that may issue [‘a public reprimand’].” This court, however, retained the concept of “disciplining courts,” and further in following subsections of section 11, intentionally used the phrases “by a disciplining court outside the District of Columbia, or by another court in the District of Columbia.” Therefore, we disagree with the Board majority’s contention that its interpretation of § 11(a) is consistent with the legislative history of that subsection.
Indeed, “[a] review of the [drafting] history ... reveal[s] [no] ambiguities” in the regulatory language. Peoples Drug Stores, Inc., supra, 470 A.2d at 754. Unlike a situation “[w]here the literal reading of a [regulatory] term would compel an odd result [requiring this court to] search for other evidence of [the drafters’] intent to lend the term its proper scope,” Jerry M., supra, 717 A.2d at 875, here, the literal reading of the term “disciplining court” with the definition given clearly establishes that the drafters intended for us to reciprocate discipline from courts and agencies with the authority to suspend and disbar an attorney. “The definition of a term in the definitional section of a statute controls the construction of that term wherever it appears throughout the statute. A court must follow a [regulatory] definition unless the necessity for a different one shall ‘clearly appear.’” SutherlaND Statutes and StatutoRY CONSTRUCTION, supra, at § 20:8 (quoting Southbridge Finishing Co. v. Golding, 2 A.D.2d 430, 156 N.Y.S.2d 542, 545 (1956)). Here, the drafting history of the term “disciplining courts” reveals that the drafters of § 11(a) rejected the interpretation that the Board seeks now to give to that term. Therefore, we hold that neither the Massachusetts Board of Bar Overseers nor the Attorney Grievance Committee of Maryland is a “disciplining court” under D.C. Bar Rule XI, § 11(a); and that before reciprocal discipline may be imposed by this court for professional misconduct in another jurisdiction, an attorney admitted to practice in this jurisdiction must have been disciplined by a disciplining court outside the District.
Conclusion
Although we readily appreciate Bar Counsel and the Board’s concern regarding the disciplinary case load, and the “burden” that Bar Counsel must bear in pursuing de novo discipline, rather than reciprocal discipline, we are constrained by the clear and unambiguous words of Rule 11(a), its drafting history, and our prior case law to conclude that in the consolidated cases before us, reciprocal discipline is inappropriate for the reasons already stated. While a change in Rule XI, § 11 may be desirable, it must be accomplished by rule, rather than case law which skews the clear and unambiguous meaning of the current rule. Accordingly, we dismiss the reciprocal disciplinary proceeding against Mr. Greenspan. In Ms. Silverman’s case, in conformity with the Board’s recommendation, we dismiss the reciprocal proceeding against her; however, we adopt the Board’s recommendation that, in the original discipline case, Ms. Silverman be publicly censured.
It is therefore
ORDERED that the reciprocal discipline proceeding in Mr. Greenspan’s case, No. 02-BG-1350 be dismissed; and it is further
ORDERED that in case No. 04-BG-73, Leslie D. Silverman, Esq., be publicly censured in the original discipline proceeding, [344]*344and that the reciprocal disciplinary proceeding be dismissed.
So ordered.