Justice Stevens
announced the judgment of the Court and delivered an opinion in which Justice Brennan, Justice Marshall, and Justice Blackmun join.
Petitioner was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to death. The principal question presented is whether the execution of that sentence would violate the constitutional prohibition against the infliction of “cruel and unusual punish[819] ments”1 because petitioner was only 15 years old at the time of his offense.
I
Because there is no claim that the punishment would be excessive if the crime had been committed by an adult, only a brief statement of facts is necessary. In concert with three older persons, petitioner actively participated in the brutal murder of his former brother-in-law in the early morning hours of January 23, 1983. The evidence disclosed that the victim had been shot twice, and that his throat, chest, and abdomen had been cut. He also had multiple bruises and a broken leg. His body had been chained to a concrete block and thrown into a river where it remained for almost four weeks. Each of the four participants was tried separately and each was sentenced to death.
Because petitioner was a “child” as a matter of Oklahoma law,2 thé District Attorney filed a statutory petition, see Okla. Stat. , Tit. 10, § 1112(b) (1981), seeking an order finding “that said child is competent and had the mental capacity to know and appreciate the wrongfulness of his [conduct].” App. 4. After a hearing, the trial court concluded “that there are virtually no reasonable prospects for rehabilitation of William Wayne Thompson within the juvenile system and [820] that William Wayne Thompson should be held accountable for his acts as if he were an adult and should be certified to stand trial as an adult.” Id., at 8 (emphasis in original).
At the guilt phase of petitioner’s trial, the prosecutor introduced three color photographs showing the condition of the victim’s body when it was removed from the river. Although the Court of Criminal Appeals held that the use of two of those photographs was error,3 it concluded that the error was harmless because the evidence of petitioner’s guilt was so convincing. However, the prosecutor had also used the photographs in his closing argument during the penalty phase. The Court of Criminal Appeals did not.consider whether this display was proper.
At the penalty phase of the trial, the prosecutor asked the jury to find two aggravating circumstances: that the murder was especially heinous, atrocious, or cruel; and that there was a probability that the defendant would commit criminal acts of violence that would constitute a continuing threat to society. The jury found the first, but not the second, and fixed petitioner’s punishment at death.
The Court of Criminal Appeals affirmed the conviction and sentence, 724 P. 2d 780 (1986), citing its earlier opinion in Eddings v. State, 616 P. 2d 1159 (1980), rev’d on other grounds, 455 U. S. 104 (1982), for the proposition that “once a minor is certified to stand trial as an adult, he may also, without violating the Constitution, be punished as an adult.” 724 P. 2d, at 784. We granted certiorari to consider whether a sentence of death is cruel and unusual punishment for a crime committed by a 15-year-old child, as well as whether [821] photographic evidence that a state court deems erroneously-admitted but harmless at the guilt phase nevertheless violates a capital defendant’s constitutional rights by virtue of its being considered at the penalty phase. 479 U. S. 1084 (1987).
II
The authors of the Eighth Amendment drafted a categorical prohibition against the infliction of cruel and unusual punishments, but they made no attempt to define the contours of that category. They delegated that task to future generations of judges who have been guided by the “evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society.” Trop v. Dulles, 356 U. S. 86, 101 (1958) (plurality opinion) (Warren, C. J.).4 In performing that task the [822] Court has reviewed the work product of state legislatures and sentencing juries,5 and has carefully considered the reasons why a civilized society may accept or reject the death penalty in certain types of cases. Thus, in confronting the question whether the youth of the defendant — more specifically, the fact that he was less than 16 years old at the time of his offense — is a sufficient reason for denying the State the power to sentence him to death, we first review relevant legislative enactments,6 then refer to jury determinations,7 and [823] finally explain why these indicators of contemporary standards of decency confirm our judgment that such a young person is not capable of acting with the degree of culpability that can justify the ultimate penalty.8
III
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Justice Stevens
announced the judgment of the Court and delivered an opinion in which Justice Brennan, Justice Marshall, and Justice Blackmun join.
Petitioner was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to death. The principal question presented is whether the execution of that sentence would violate the constitutional prohibition against the infliction of “cruel and unusual punish[819] ments”1 because petitioner was only 15 years old at the time of his offense.
I
Because there is no claim that the punishment would be excessive if the crime had been committed by an adult, only a brief statement of facts is necessary. In concert with three older persons, petitioner actively participated in the brutal murder of his former brother-in-law in the early morning hours of January 23, 1983. The evidence disclosed that the victim had been shot twice, and that his throat, chest, and abdomen had been cut. He also had multiple bruises and a broken leg. His body had been chained to a concrete block and thrown into a river where it remained for almost four weeks. Each of the four participants was tried separately and each was sentenced to death.
Because petitioner was a “child” as a matter of Oklahoma law,2 thé District Attorney filed a statutory petition, see Okla. Stat. , Tit. 10, § 1112(b) (1981), seeking an order finding “that said child is competent and had the mental capacity to know and appreciate the wrongfulness of his [conduct].” App. 4. After a hearing, the trial court concluded “that there are virtually no reasonable prospects for rehabilitation of William Wayne Thompson within the juvenile system and [820] that William Wayne Thompson should be held accountable for his acts as if he were an adult and should be certified to stand trial as an adult.” Id., at 8 (emphasis in original).
At the guilt phase of petitioner’s trial, the prosecutor introduced three color photographs showing the condition of the victim’s body when it was removed from the river. Although the Court of Criminal Appeals held that the use of two of those photographs was error,3 it concluded that the error was harmless because the evidence of petitioner’s guilt was so convincing. However, the prosecutor had also used the photographs in his closing argument during the penalty phase. The Court of Criminal Appeals did not.consider whether this display was proper.
At the penalty phase of the trial, the prosecutor asked the jury to find two aggravating circumstances: that the murder was especially heinous, atrocious, or cruel; and that there was a probability that the defendant would commit criminal acts of violence that would constitute a continuing threat to society. The jury found the first, but not the second, and fixed petitioner’s punishment at death.
The Court of Criminal Appeals affirmed the conviction and sentence, 724 P. 2d 780 (1986), citing its earlier opinion in Eddings v. State, 616 P. 2d 1159 (1980), rev’d on other grounds, 455 U. S. 104 (1982), for the proposition that “once a minor is certified to stand trial as an adult, he may also, without violating the Constitution, be punished as an adult.” 724 P. 2d, at 784. We granted certiorari to consider whether a sentence of death is cruel and unusual punishment for a crime committed by a 15-year-old child, as well as whether [821] photographic evidence that a state court deems erroneously-admitted but harmless at the guilt phase nevertheless violates a capital defendant’s constitutional rights by virtue of its being considered at the penalty phase. 479 U. S. 1084 (1987).
II
The authors of the Eighth Amendment drafted a categorical prohibition against the infliction of cruel and unusual punishments, but they made no attempt to define the contours of that category. They delegated that task to future generations of judges who have been guided by the “evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society.” Trop v. Dulles, 356 U. S. 86, 101 (1958) (plurality opinion) (Warren, C. J.).4 In performing that task the [822] Court has reviewed the work product of state legislatures and sentencing juries,5 and has carefully considered the reasons why a civilized society may accept or reject the death penalty in certain types of cases. Thus, in confronting the question whether the youth of the defendant — more specifically, the fact that he was less than 16 years old at the time of his offense — is a sufficient reason for denying the State the power to sentence him to death, we first review relevant legislative enactments,6 then refer to jury determinations,7 and [823] finally explain why these indicators of contemporary standards of decency confirm our judgment that such a young person is not capable of acting with the degree of culpability that can justify the ultimate penalty.8
III
Justice Powell has repeatedly reminded us of the importance of “the experience of mankind, as well as the long history of our law, recognizing that there are differences which must be accommodated in determining the rights and duties of children as compared with those of adults. Examples of this distinction abound in our law: in contracts, in torts, in criminal law and procedure, in criminal sanctions and rehabilitation, and in the right to vote and to hold office.” Goss v. Lopez, 419 U. S. 565, 590-591 (1975) (dissenting opinion).9 Oklahoma recognizes this basic distinction in a number of its statutes. Thus, a minor is not eligible to vote,10 to sit on a jury,11 to marry without parental consent,12 or to purchase alcohol13 or cigarettes.14 Like all other States, Oklahoma [824] has developed a juvenile justice system in which most offenders under the age of 18 are not held criminally responsible. Its statutes do provide, however, that a 16- or 17-year-old charged with murder and other serious felonies shall be considered an adult.15 Other than the special certification procedure that was used to authorize petitioner’s trial in this case “as an adult,” apparently there are no Oklahoma statutes, either civil or criminal, that treat a person under 16 years of age as anything but a “child.”
The line between childhood and adulthood is drawn in different ways by various States. There is, however, complete or near unanimity among all 50 States and the District of Columbia 16 in treating a person under 16 as a minor for several important purposes. In no State may a 15-year-old vote or serve on a jury.17 Further, in all but one State a 15-year-old may not drive without parental consent,18 and in all but four States a 15-year-old may not marry without parental consent.19 Additionally, in those States that have legislated on the subject, no one under age 16 may purchase pornographic materials (50 States),20 and in most States that have some form of legalized gambling, minors are not permitted to participate without parental consent (42 States).21 Most relevant, however, is the fact that all States have enacted legislation designating the maximum age for juvenile' court jurisdiction at no less than 16.22 All of this legislation is con[825] sistent with the experience of mankind, as well as the long history of our law, that the normal 15-year-old is not prepared to assume the full responsibilities of an adult.23
[826] Most state legislatures have not expressly confronted the question of establishing a minimum age for imposition of the death penalty."' In 24 States, capital punishment is not authorized at all,-'' and in 25 others capital punishment is au[827] thorized but no minimum age is expressly stated in the death penalty statute.26 One might argue on the basis of this body of legislation that there is no chronological age at which the [828] imposition of the death penalty is unconstitutional and that our current standards of decency would still tolerate the execution of 10-year-old children.27 We think it self-evident that such an argument is unacceptable; indeed, no such argument has been advanced in this case.28 If, therefore, we accept the [829] premise that some offenders are simply too young to be put to death, it is reasonable to put this group of statutes to one side because they do not focus on the question of where the chronological age line should be drawn.29 When we confine our attention to the 18 States that have expressly established a minimum age in their death penalty statutes, we find that all of them require that the defendant have attained at least the age of 16 at the time of the capital offense.30
[830] The conclusion that it would offend civilized standards of decency to execute a person who was less than 16 years old at the time of his or her offense is consistent with the views that have been expressed by respected professional organizations, by other nations that share our Anglo-American heritage, and by the leading members of the Western European community.31 Thus, the American Bar Association32 and the American Law Institute33 have formally expressed their opposition to the death penalty for juveniles. Although the death penalty has not been entirely abolished in the United Kingdom or New Zealand (it has been abolished in Australia, except in the State of New South Wales, where it is available [831] for treason and piracy), in neither of those countries may a juvenile be executed. The death penalty has been abolished in West Germany, France, Portugal, The Netherlands, and all of the Scandinavian countries, and is available only for exceptional crimes such as treason in Canada, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland. Juvenile executions are also prohibited in the Soviet Union.34
IV
The second societal factor the Court has examined in determining the acceptability of capital punishment to the American sensibility is the behavior of juries. In fact, the infrequent and haphazard handing out of death sentences by capital juries was a prime factor underlying our judgment in Furman v. Georgia, 408 U. S. 238 (1972), that the death penalty, as then administered in unguided fashion, was unconstitutional.35
[832] While it is not known precisely how many persons have been executed during the 20th century for crimes committed under the age of 16, a scholar has recently compiled a table revealing this number to be between 18 and 20.36 All of these occurred during the first half of the century, with the last such execution taking place apparently in 1948.37 In the following year this Court observed that this “whole country has traveled far from the period in which the death sentence was an automatic and commonplace result of convictions . . . .” Williams v. New York, 337 U. S. 241, 247 (1949). The road we have traveled during the past four decades — in which thousands of juries have tried murder cases — leads to the unambiguous conclusion that the imposition of the death penalty on a 15-year-old offender is now generally abhorrent to the conscience of the community.
Department of Justice statistics indicate that during the years 1982 through 1986 an average of over 16,000 persons were arrested for willful criminal homicide (murder and non-negligent manslaughter) each year. Of that group of 82,094 persons, 1,393 were sentenced to death. Only 5 of them, including the petitioner in this case, were less than 16 years old [833] at the time of the offense.38 Statistics of this kind can, of course, be interpreted in different ways,39 but they do suggest that these five young offenders have received sentences that are “cruel and unusual in the same way that being struck by lightning is cruel and unusual.” Furman v. Georgia, 408 U. S., at 309 (Stewart, J., concurring).
V
“Although the judgments of legislatures, juries, and prosecutors weigh heavily in the balance, it is for us ultimately to judge whether the Eighth Amendment permits imposition of the death penalty” on one such as petitioner who committed a . heinous murder when he was only 15 years old. Enmund v. Florida, 458 U. S. 782, 797 (1982).40 In making that judgment, we first ask whether the juvenile’s culpability should be measured by the same standard as that of an adult, and then consider whether the application of the death penalty to this class of offenders “measurably contributes” to the social purposes that are served by the death penalty. Id., at 798.
[834] It is generally agreed “that punishment should be directly related to the personal culpability of the criminal defendant.” California v. Brown, 479 U. S. 538, 545 (1987) (O’CONNOR, J., concurring). .There is also broad agreement on the proposition that adolescents as a.class are less mature and responsible than adults. We stressed this difference in explaining the importance of treating the defendant’s youth as a mitigating factor in capital cases:
“But youth is more than a chronological fact. It is a time and condition of life when a person may be most susceptible to influence and to psychological damage. Our history is replete with laws and judicial recognition that minors, especially in their earlier years, generally are less mature and responsible than adults. Particularly ‘during the formative years of childhood and adolescence, minors often lack the experience, perspective, and judgment’ expected of adults. Bellotti v. Baird, 443 U. S. 622, 635 (1979).” Eddings v. Oklahoma, 455 U. S. 104, 115-116 (1982) (footnotes omitted).
To add further emphasis to the special mitigating force of youth, Justice Powell quoted the following passage from the 1978 Report of the Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on Sentencing Policy Toward Young Offenders:
“ ‘[Ajdolescents, particularly in the early and middle teen years, are more vulnerable, more impulsive, and less self-disciplined than adults. Crimes committed by youths may be just as harmful to victims as those committed by older persons, but they deserve less punishment because adolescents may have less capacity to control their conduct and to think in long-range terms than adults. Moreover, youth crime as such is not exclusively the offender’s fault; offenses by the young also represent a failure of family, school, and the social system, which share responsibility for the development of America’s youth.’” 455 U. S., at 115, n. 11.
[835] Thus, the Court has already endorsed the proposition that less culpability should attach to a crime committed by a juvenile than to a comparable crime committed by an adult.41 The basis for this conclusion is too obvious to require extended explanation.42 Inexperience, less education, and less intelligence make the teenager less able to evaluate the consequences of his or her conduct while at the same time he or she is much more apt to be motivated by mere emotion or peer pressure than is an adult. The reasons why juveniles are not trusted with the privileges and responsibilities of an adult also explain why their irresponsible conduct is not as morally reprehensible as that of an adult.43
[836] “The death penalty is said to serve two principal social purposes: retribution and deterrence of capital crimes by prospective offenders.” Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U. S. 153, 183 (1976) (joint opinion of Stewart, Powell, and Stevens, JJ.). In Gregg we concluded that as “an expression of society’s moral outrage at particularly offensive conduct,” retribution was not “inconsistent with our respect for the dignity of men.” Ibid.