19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT August Term, 2021 (Argued: October 14, 2021 Decided: June 17, 2022) Docket No. 19-3575
RAFIQ SABIR, JAMES J. CONYERS, Plaintiffs-Appellees,
v. D.K. WILLIAMS, IN HER INDIVIDUAL CAPACITY AND OFFICIAL CAPACITY AS WARDEN OF FCI DANBURY, HERMAN QUAY, IN HIS INDIVIDUAL CAPACITY, Defendants-Appellants;
MARK S. INCH, DIRECTOR OF FEDERAL BUREAU OF PRISONS, THOMAS R. KANE, DIRECTOR OF FEDERAL BUREAU OF PRISONS, HUGH J. HURWITZ, IN HIS INDIVIDUAL CAPACITY AS DIRECTOR OF THE FEDERAL BUREAU OF PRISONS, Defendants.
Before: WALKER, SACK, AND CARNEY, Circuit Judges. Defendants-appellants D.K. Williams and Herman Quay appeal from an order denying their motion to dismiss in part and rejecting their qualified immunity defense against the Religious Freedom Restoration Act ("RFRA") claims of plaintiffs-appellees Rafiq Sabir and James Conyers. The plaintiffs-appellees are practicing Muslims whose religion requires them to perform daily congregational prayers with as many other Muslims as are available. According to the allegations in their complaint, while Sabir and Conyers were incarcerated at the Federal Correctional Institution in Danbury, Connecticut, the defendants-appellants enforced a policy that restricted group prayer to the prison's chapel, despite that facility's frequent unavailability. As a result, Sabir and Conyers were forced to forgo their religious exercise of group prayer to avoid disciplinary action. We conclude that the wardens are not entitled to qualified immunity at this stage of the proceedings because the 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
pleadings do not establish that their enforcement of the policy against Sabir and Conyers was in service of a compelling interest, and it was clearly established at the time of the violation that substantially burdening an inmate's religious exercise without justification violates RFRA. We therefore
AFFIRM the order of the district court.
DANIEL WINIK, (Brian M. Boynton, Leonard C. Boyle, Michael S. Raab, on the brief), U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, D.C., for Defendant-Appellants;
MATTHEW W. CALLAHAN, Muslim Advocates, Washington, D.C., for Plaintiffs- Appellees;
Elizabeth A. Bixby, Daniel M. Greenfield, on the brief, Roderick & Solange MacArthur Justice Center, Washington, D.C. and Chicago, IL, for Amicus Curiae, Roderick & Solange MacArthur Justice Center.
SACK, Circuit Judge:
The plaintiffs, Rafiq Sabir and James Conyers, are practicing
Muslims who believe that they are required under the precepts of their religion
to perform five daily congregational prayers with as many other Muslims as are
available and wish to participate. Sabir and Conyers allege that while they were
incarcerated at the Federal Correctional Institution in Danbury, Connecticut
("FCI Danbury"), Warden D.K. Williams and Warden Herman Quay enforced a 2 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
policy that restricted prayer in groups of more than two to the prison's chapel,
despite that facility's frequently unavailability. As a result, the plaintiffs were
forced to forgo their engagement in a required religious practice to avoid
disciplinary action.
The plaintiffs filed this suit against defendant prison officials in the
United States District Court for the District of Connecticut, seeking injunctive
relief and damages on the grounds that FCI Danbury's communal prayer policy
violated the Religious Freedom Restoration Act ("RFRA") and the Free Exercise
Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. In August
2019, the district court (Bolden, J.) granted the defendants' motion to dismiss the
plaintiffs' Second Amended Complaint in large part, but declined to dismiss the
plaintiffs' RFRA claims for damages against the defendants in their individual
capacities, holding that qualified immunity was not available to Williams and
Quay at the motion-to-dismiss stage.
We agree with the district court that the defendants-appellants are
not entitled to qualified immunity at this stage of the proceedings because the
allegations in the complaint and the documents attached to it as exhibits do not
establish that their enforcement of the policy against Sabir and Conyers was in
3 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
service of a compelling interest, and it was clearly established at the time of the
violation that substantially burdening an inmate's religious exercise without
justification violates RFRA.
BACKGROUND
Factual Background
For the purposes of this appeal from the district court's denial of a
motion to dismiss, we are required "to accept as true those factual assertions set
forth in plaintiff[s'] complaint." Charles W. v. Maul, 214 F.3d 350, 356 (2d Cir.
2000). In reviewing a motion to dismiss, we "may consider [not only] the facts
alleged in the complaint, [but also] documents attached to the complaint as
exhibits, and documents incorporated by reference in the complaint." DiFolco v.
MSNBC Cable L.L.C., 622 F.3d 104, 111 (2d Cir. 2010). According to the complaint
as thus augmented:
Plaintiffs Rafiq Sabir and James Conyers were inmates at FCI
Danbury, a low-security federal prison, beginning in July 2014 and September
2016, respectively. Defendant Herman Quay was the Warden of FCI Danbury
from July 2014 to December 2015; Defendant D.K. Williams was the Warden of
FCI Danbury at the time of the plaintiffs' Second Amended Complaint, dated
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June 1, 2018 (the "SAC"), which was the operative pleading at the time of the
defendants' motion to dismiss.
Individuals incarcerated at FCI Danbury have a relatively high
degree of autonomy: Many living quarters remain unlocked, and inmates
regularly gather, with prison approval, in large groups for activities ranging
from inmate-led fitness classes to sports and card games. FCI Danbury has
several recreational facilities, including "a recreation yard, weight room,
gymnasium, bathroom, wellness room, hobbycraft [sic] room, music room, video
viewing area with game tables, the chapel facility, and several offices." SAC at 8,
¶ 29. The inmates also have access to "the medical area, food services, education
and housing facilities, laundry, the barber shop, and the prison work program
area." Id.
Sabir and Conyers are practicing Muslims. A central aspect of their
religious exercise is a prayer known as a "salah," which, according to the
religion's tenets, adult Muslims are required to perform five times each day. The
plaintiffs possess the "sincerely-held religious belief that if two or more Muslims
are together at a time of required prayer, they must pray together behind one
prayer leader" and cannot "break up into smaller groups." Id. at 6, ¶ 23. They
5 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
explain that performing group prayer with the largest possible number of other
Muslims "multiplies the blessings and utility of prayer." Id. at 5-6, ¶ 19.
The Federal Bureau of Prisons ("FBOP") does not have a formal
policy categorically banning congregational prayer within its facilities. Each
facility’s warden is, however, authorized to temporarily restrict a specific
religious practice if he or she determines that the "practice jeopardizes the
facility's safety and security." Id. at 6-7, ¶ 24. At many FBOP facilities—
including those in which both Sabir and Conyers were previously housed—
prison officials allowed congregational prayer without significant restrictions.
In March 2014, FCI Danbury's then-warden, Maureen Baird,
nonetheless instituted a policy restricting prayer in groups of more than two
people to the prison's chapel. The policy statement provided:
Congregate Prayer, outside of the Chapel, for all faith groups will follow the following guidelines:
a) Must get the approval of the location to pray from work supervisor, program supervisor, etc. b) Prayer individually or in pairs is permitted, however, group prayer of 3 or more is restricted to the Chapel. c) Prayers can be made at work detail sites, school, or units during break times. d) Prayer rug or clean towel is permitted to cover the floor. e) In case of institutional emergency or instructed by
6 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
staff prayers will be terminated.
Id. at 8-9, ¶ 30 (alterations omitted). Although FCI Danbury permitted
congregational prayer in the chapel, groups seeking to use the space could only
do so when chapel staff was present and the rooms were not otherwise occupied
or reserved. The facility was "frequently unavailable" during the plaintiffs'
prayer times. Id. at 9, ¶ 32.
In October 2014, Sabir was praying with two other inmates in the
auditorium when corrections officers approached to inform them that group
prayer was only permitted in the chapel and that violating the rule could result
in discipline. Sabir and the others explained to the officers that their religion
required them to perform congregational prayer five times per day and that the
chapel was frequently unavailable during those times. The officers responded by
reiterating the terms of the prison's group prayer policy. As a result of this
incident, Sabir was "fearful" that he would be sanctioned or disciplined for
engaging in group prayer. Id. at 11, ¶ 41. Prison officials also repeatedly
informed Conyers that congregational prayer outside of the chapel was not
allowed. He therefore felt compelled to refrain from engaging in group prayer to
avoid disciplinary action. The plaintiffs allege that the wardens' "enforcement of
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the Policy prevent[ed] [them] from . . . engaging in daily congregational prayer
as mandated by [their] sincerely-held religious beliefs." Id. at 11, ¶¶ 41-42. Sabir
and Conyers have thus "been forced to choose between acting in accordance with
their sincere religious beliefs and facing discipline at the prison, including
possible solitary confinement and loss of other privileges." Id. at 11, ¶ 44.
According to the SAC, "Defendants have offered no meaningful justification for
the [p]olicy" restricting group prayer. Id. at 9, ¶ 33.
Each plaintiff submitted an administrative grievance asserting that
the policy violated his right to freely exercise his religion. Warden Quay denied
Sabir's grievance in January 2015 but offered no explanation beyond reiterating
the content of the policy, stating that "congregate prayer is not restricted"
because praying in pairs was allowed and "congregate prayer is permitted in the
Chapel." Response of H. Quay to Sabir (Jan. 27, 2015), J.A. 48. Quay's
determination was subsequently upheld by FBOP's Regional Director, who wrote
that FCI Danbury's congregate prayer policy was "a reasonable, least restrictive
alternative of accommodating prayer by groups of three or more inmates in the
chapel when the schedule permits." Response of J.L. Norwood to Sabir (Mar. 11,
2015), J.A. 51. FBOP's Administrator of National Inmate Appeals later agreed,
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reiterating the terms of the policy, and stating that it provided "a reasonable and
equitable opportunity to pursue your religious beliefs and practices." Response
of Ian Connors to Sabir (Sept. 27, 2016), J.A. 53.
In May 2017, Warden Williams denied Conyers's grievance,
restating the policy and explaining that that the prison's Religious Services
Department had consulted with Muslim Imams and determined that Muslims
were not required to perform their five daily prayers in groups of three or more.
See Response of D.K. Williams to Conyers (May 19, 2017), J.A. 56. Williams's
determination was upheld by FBOP's Regional Director, who found that "the
institution's policy on prayer does not ban group prayer." Response of M.D.
Carvajal to Conyers (July 5, 2017), J.A. 58. Instead, the Regional Director
explained that "the policy provides the necessary structure to promote equity
among all faith groups in regards to prayers in the chapel area" and that "[t]his
allowance offers you a least restrictive alternative when congregational prayer
cannot be accommodated." Id. The Administrator of National Inmate Appeals
concurred, adding that the policy was "the least restrictive alternative in order to
afford inmates with more opportunities to practice this religious observance
consistent with security and budgetary constraints." Response of Ian Connors to
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Conyers (Oct. 24, 2017), J.A. 61.
After the initiation of this proceeding, Sabir and Conyers were each
transferred to another institution.
Procedural History
In May 2017, Sabir, acting pro se, initiated this suit against Williams
and the director of the FBOP, alleging violations of the Free Exercise Clause of
the First Amendment, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, 42 U.S.C. § 2000bb,
et seq. ("RFRA"), and the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act,
42 U.S.C. § 2000cc, et seq. ("RLUIPA"). The district court dismissed Sabir's suit
for failure to pay a filing fee, then reopened the case and dismissed it under the
screening provision of the Prison Litigation Reform Act, 28 U.S.C. § 1915A.
In December 2017, the district court granted Sabir’s motion to
reopen the case and amend his complaint. The court dismissed Sabir’s RLUIPA
claim because that statute applies only to state and local governments, but it
allowed his RFRA and Free Exercise claims to proceed.
Sabir then filed the SAC, through newly obtained counsel, in June
2018. The SAC added Conyers as an additional plaintiff and named Quay as an
additional defendant. Sabir and Conyers asserted that FCI Danbury's communal
10 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
prayer policy violated RFRA and the Free Exercise Clause. They sought a
declaration that the policy was unlawful, injunctive relief preventing the
enforcement of the policy, and damages from Williams and Quay in their
individual capacities. The defendants moved to dismiss the claims for damages
against Williams and Quay, and later moved to dismiss the equitable claims as
moot in light of Sabir's and Conyers's respective transfers out of FCI Danbury.
The district court granted in part and denied in part the defendants'
motion to dismiss. See Sabir v. Williams, No. 3:17-cv-749 (VAB), 2019 WL 4038331
(D. Conn. Aug. 27, 2019). It declined to dismiss the plaintiffs' RFRA claims for
damages against the defendants acting in their individual capacities, concluding
that the group prayer policy was "arguably a substantial burden on the exercise
of religion." Id. at *9. 1 The plaintiffs stated a claim by "detail[ing] the religious
importance of congregational prayer," showing "the burden the Policy has placed
on [the plaintiffs'] exercise of religion," and "alleg[ing] that FCI Danbury only
1On appeal, we consider only the plaintiffs' claim for individual-capacity damages under RFRA, not under the First Amendment. Before the district court, the defendants argued that a Bivens claim "is the only avenue for damages under the First Amendment" and claimed that the "[p]laintiffs s[ought] to impermissibly expand Bivens to include a new context . . . ." Sabir, 2019 WL 4038331, at *7-8. In response, the plaintiffs conceded that "they only seek money damages against the wardens in their individual capacity based on the Religious Freedom Restoration Act[;] therefore Plaintiffs need not, and do not, look to Bivens to seek damages." Id. at *8 (internal quotation marks omitted). 11 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
applies this sort of burden to religious activities, while other group activities
continued unencumbered." Id.
The district court held that qualified immunity was not available to
Williams or Quay at the motion-to-dismiss stage. The court explained that the
policy "may violate clearly established First Amendment case law and the RFRA
statute," and, therefore, decided that "it is plausible—at this stage—that qualified
immunity would not shield Defendants from liability in their individual
capacities." Id. at *10-11. The court found it "[s]ignificant[]" that in Salahuddin v.
Goord, 467 F.3d 263 (2d Cir. 2006) ("Salahuddin"), the Second Circuit denied
qualified immunity to prison officials for religious liberties claims, even at the
later stage of summary judgment proceedings, "because it was clearly
established . . . that prison officials may not substantially burden inmates' right to
religious exercise without some justification . . . ." Sabir, 2019 WL 4038331, at *11
n.3 (quoting Salahuddin, 467 F.3d at 275-76).
The district court dismissed most of the plaintiffs' equitable claims
as moot in light of Sabir's and Conyers's transfers. See id. at *5 ("[A]n inmate's
transfer from a prison facility generally moots claims for declaratory and
injunctive relief against officials of that facility." (quoting Salahuddin, 467 F.3d at
12 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
272)). The only surviving claim for equitable relief was Sabir's claim against
FBOP's Director, see id. at *6, but in May 2020, Sabir voluntarily dismissed it. 2
DISCUSSION
On appeal, the wardens assert that the district court erred in
denying their motion to dismiss the plaintiffs' individual-capacity damages
claims because the wardens are entitled to qualified immunity, even at this early
stage of the proceedings. We disagree. They cannot point to assertions in the
SAC or evidence in its attachments that demonstrate that their enforcement of
the policy against Sabir and Conyers was in service of a governmental interest.
Because it was clearly established at the time that substantially burdening
prisoners' religious exercise without justification violates RFRA, the wardens are
not entitled to qualified immunity.
I. Standard of Review
"We review a district court's denial of qualified immunity on a
motion to dismiss de novo, accepting as true the material facts alleged in the
2We have jurisdiction to consider this appeal of the court's partial denial of the defendants' motion to dismiss under 28 U.S.C. § 1291 through the collateral order doctrine. See Locurto v. Safir, 264 F.3d 154, 162 (2d Cir. 2001) (“A denial by a district court of a claim of qualified immunity—to the extent that it turns on an issue of law—is a collateral order subject to immediate appeal.”). 13 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
complaint and drawing all reasonable inferences in plaintiffs' favor." Garcia v.
Does, 779 F.3d 84, 91 (2d Cir. 2015) (internal quotation marks omitted).
II. Qualified Immunity
A. Legal Analysis
We apply a two-step analysis to determine whether qualified
immunity bars a plaintiff's claim against government officials for civil damages
related to actions taken in the course of their official duties. Francis v. Fiacco, 942
F.3d 126, 139 (2d Cir. 2019). "Pursuant to that analysis, '[q]ualified immunity
shields federal and state officials from money damages unless [the] plaintiff
pleads facts showing (1) that the official violated a statutory or constitutional
right, and (2) that the right was "clearly established" at the time of the challenged
conduct.'" Id. (alterations in original) (quoting Ricciuti v. Gyzenis, 834 F.3d 162,
167 (2d Cir. 2016)). When qualified immunity shields defendants from liability,
courts may "exercise their sound discretion in deciding which of the two prongs
of the qualified immunity analysis should be addressed first in light of the
circumstances in the particular case at hand." Pearson v. Callahan, 555 U.S. 223,
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236 (2009); see also Francis, 942 F.3d at 140. 3 However, because we conclude that
the district court properly denied qualified immunity to the defendants at the
pleadings stage, we must engage in both prongs of the analysis. First, we decide
that the plaintiffs have adequately pled a violation of RFRA, and second, we
3 Before Pearson, courts were required to complete both steps in every case, because "skip[ping] ahead" to the second step without first holding that an official violated a plaintiff's rights might preclude "the law's elaboration from case to case." Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 201 (2001). The Supreme Court has continued to recognize this well- founded concern, even after Pearson introduced discretion as to the order in which courts may address the prongs. See Camreta v. Greene, 563 U.S. 692, 704-06 (2011) (recognizing "that our regular policy of avoidance sometimes does not fit the qualified immunity situation because it threatens to leave standards of official conduct permanently in limbo" and explaining that merits rulings in immunity-barred cases are "self-consciously designed . . . with this Court's permission" to "establish[] controlling law and prevent[] invocations of immunity in later cases"). Camreta warned of a "repetitive cycle" in which a court repeatedly declines to address the merits because immunity exists, and the official continues to engage in the challenged practice because he will remain immune until the right is clearly established. Id. at 706 & n.5. This cycle could happen "again, and again, and again," id. at 706, thereby allowing "palpably unreasonable conduct [to] go unpunished," Kisela v. Hughes, 138 S. Ct. 1148, 1162 (2018) (Sotomayor, J., dissenting). Although this "repetitive cycle of qualified immunity defenses" could be broken if the same merits questions "arise in a case in which qualified immunity is unavailable," the Court has warned that "some kinds of constitutional questions do not often come up in these alternative settings." Camreta, 563 U.S. at 706 n.5 (citing Pearson, 555 U.S. at 236 and County of Sacramento v. Lewis, 523 U.S. 833, 841 n.5 (1998)). Claims brought by incarcerated individuals against officials at a specific institution likely fall into that category. As evidenced by the case at bar, a prisoner's equitable claims could be mooted at any moment by his transfer to a new facility. See Salahuddin, 467 F.3d at 272. Thus, these circumstances present a higher likelihood that prisoners' rights do not become clearly established. Even if it were not clearly established that the wardens violated RFRA, we would therefore still address the merits question first to clearly establish the law and prevent a vicious cycle of shielded misconduct. 15 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
conclude that their rights were clearly established at the time of the alleged
violations.
B. Violation of RFRA
In the first step of the qualified immunity inquiry, we must
determine whether the SAC plausibly alleges that the wardens' enforcement of
the group-prayer policy against Sabir and Conyers violated RFRA. We conclude
that it does.
RFRA prohibits the government from "substantially burden[ing] a
person's exercise of religion" unless "application of the burden . . . (1) is in
furtherance of a compelling governmental interest; and (2) is the least restrictive
means of furthering that compelling governmental interest." 42 U.S.C. § 2000bb-
1(a)-(b). To establish a prima facie RFRA violation, the plaintiffs must
demonstrate that they sought to engage in the exercise of religion and that the
defendant-officials substantially burdened that exercise. The government then
faces an "exceptionally demanding" burden to show "that it lacks other means of
achieving its desired goal without imposing a substantial burden on the exercise
of religion by the objecting parties . . . ." Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., 573
U.S. 682, 728 (2014).
16 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
First, Sabir and Conyers's performance of congregational prayer is
undoubtedly religious exercise. The term "exercise of religion" extends beyond
"belief and profession" and encompasses "the performance of . . . physical acts
[such as] assembling with others for a worship service." Cutter v. Wilkinson, 544
U.S. 709, 720 (2005). "It is well established that prisoners have a constitutional right
to participate in congregate religious services," Salahuddin v. Coughlin, 993 F.2d
306, 308 (2d Cir. 1993) (emphasis added), and that same religious exercise is also
protected by RFRA, which Congress intended to cover an even broader range of
activity than the First Amendment does, see Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., 573 U.S. at
696. 4
Second, the wardens' application of the group-prayer policy against
Sabir and Conyers substantially burdened that religious exercise. An
incarcerated plaintiff "easily satisfie[s]" his burden of proving that a prison policy
4Williams's purported reliance on the advice of imams to determine that Muslims do not need to perform the five daily prayers in groups does not change this analysis. RFRA's definition of the "exercise of religion" broadly includes "any exercise of religion, whether or not compelled by, or central to, a system of religious belief." Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., 573 U.S. at 696 (quoting 42 U.S.C. § 2000cc-5(7)(A)). The "proper inquiry" is whether Sabir's and Conyers' beliefs were "sincerely held and in [their] own scheme of things, religious," which the SAC adequately alleges. Ford v. McGinnis, 352 F.3d 582, 598 (2d Cir. 2003) (emphasis and internal quotation marks omitted); see id. ("[R]eligious authorities' opinions that a particular practice is not religiously mandated under Muslim law, without more, cannot render defendants' conduct reasonable."). 17 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
substantially burdens his religious exercise when the policy "puts [him] to th[e]
choice" between "engag[ing] in conduct that seriously violates [his] religious
beliefs" or risking "serious disciplinary action" for adhering to those beliefs. Holt
v. Hobbs, 574 U.S. 352, 361 (2015) (internal quotation marks omitted). 5 Sabir
stopped engaging in congregate prayer because he was "fearful" of being
disciplined after officers chastised his prayer group and threatened "that
violation of th[e] rule may result in disciplinary action." SAC at 10-11, ¶¶ 37-38;
41. Officials repeatedly warned Conyers that congregational prayer outside of
the chapel was not allowed, and "[r]ather than risk discipline for engaging in
congregational prayer . . . [he] refrained from engaging in congregational prayer
on many occasions." Id. at 11, ¶ 43. Both plaintiffs "have been forced to choose
between acting in accordance with their sincere religious beliefs and facing
discipline at the prison, including possible solitary confinement and loss of other
privileges." Id., ¶ 44. "Because the [group prayer] policy puts [the plaintiffs] to
this choice, it substantially burdens [their] religious exercise." Holt, 574 U.S. at
5Holt involved a challenge under RLUIPA to restrictions on religious exercise and is relevant here because the statutory provision in that case "mirrors RFRA and . . . thus allows prisoners to seek religious accommodations pursuant to the same standard as set forth in RFRA." Holt, 574 U.S. at 357-58 (internal quotation marks omitted).
18 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
361. Moreover, "the availability of alternative means of practicing religion"—
such as praying in pairs—is insufficient to eliminate that substantial burden. Id.
Third, once plaintiffs have demonstrated that defendants
substantially burdened their religious exercise, the defendants must establish
that the "application of the burden to the [plaintiffs]" is the "least restrictive
means of furthering [a] compelling governmental interest." 42 U.S.C. § 2000bb-
1(b). RFRA thus places an "exceptionally demanding" burden on the wardens to
show that they "lack[ed] other means of achieving [their] desired goal without
imposing a substantial burden on the exercise of religion by the objecting
parties." Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., 573 U.S. at 728. And because RFRA expressly
requires government officials to demonstrate a compelling interest, it follows
that prison officials necessarily violate RFRA when they substantially burden a
plaintiff's exercise of religion without demonstrating that they had any interest,
compelling or otherwise, in doing so. See Salahuddin, 467 F.3d at 275-76 ("[P]rison
officials may not substantially burden inmates' right to religious exercise without
some justification . . . ."). The wardens chose to press this appeal at the motion-
to-dismiss stage; therefore, our consideration is limited to any interests and
evidence of narrow tailoring contained in the allegations of the complaint or, as
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relevant here, any facts reflected in the attachments to it. See Chamberlain v. City
of White Plains, 960 F.3d 100, 110 (2d Cir. 2020). From these documents, we can
discern no asserted governmental interest—much less a compelling one—for the
requirement that Sabir and Conyers engage in group prayer only in the prison
chapel.
Quay's and Williams's denials of the plaintiffs' administrative
grievances were attached to the complaint and may therefore be considered in
reviewing their motion to dismiss, but they are ultimately unhelpful to their
position. In denying Sabir's grievance, Quay declared that "congregate prayer is
not restricted" despite recognizing that "group prayer of 3 or more is restricted to
the Chapel." Response of H. Quay to Sabir (Jan. 27, 2015), J.A. 48. His confusing
paraphrase of the policy does nothing to demonstrate that a compelling interest
is at stake, or that the policy is the least restrictive means of furthering any such
interest. In denying Conyers's grievance, Williams also restated the policy and
suggested that the prison had determined through consultations with religious
leaders that performing congregate prayer five times per day was not necessary.
At most, Williams's defense of the policy could suggest that Conyers's religious
beliefs were not widely held, but the administrative denial again fails to offer any
20 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
governmental interest for the policy's enforcement against Conyers or explain
how this enforcement was narrowly tailored to serve any such interest.
The wardens contend that other attachments to the complaint
adequately reflect the governmental interests served by their enforcement of the
policy against Sabir and Conyers. Specifically, they point to subsequent
statements by high-ranking FBOP officials upholding the wardens' denials. One
response from FBOP's Regional Director offers the conclusory statement that FCI
Danbury's policy was "a reasonable, least restrictive alternative of
accommodating prayer" consistent with "the orderly running of the institution"
and with "staff supervision" and "space" constraints. Response of J.L. Norwood
to Sabir (Mar. 11, 2015), J.A. 51. Another response by FBOP's Administrator of
National Inmate Appeals similarly declares that the policy was "the least
restrictive alternative" that would allow for group prayer "consistent with
security and budgetary constraints." Response of Ian Connors to Conyers (Oct.
24, 2017), J.A. 61.
Even taking into account these subsequent attempts by non-
defendant FBOP officials to justify the policy's existence more broadly, we cannot
identify any governmental interests on which Quay and Williams relied when
21 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
they enforced the policy against Sabir and Conyers. "[P]rison officials must have
been pursuing the interest . . . when limiting [the plaintiffs'] religious exercise,"
and we have explained that this requirement "ensures that prison officials actually
had, not just could have had, a legitimate reason for burdening protected
activity." Salahuddin, 467 F.3d at 277 (emphasis added). Subsequent statements
from regional and national supervisory officials shed no light on the wardens'
actual reasons for enforcing the policy against Sabir and Conyers. For the same
reason, a panel of this Court similarly refused to "impute[] the penological
interest articulated by [one official] onto [another]." Barnes v. Fedele, 813 F. App'x
696, 701 (2d Cir.) (summary order), cert. denied, 141 S. Ct. 884 (2020). Here,
"nothing in the record sets forth [the wardens'] motivation or thinking," and "[i]t
is possible, after all, that [the FBOP officials'] 'understanding' of the policy . . .
was not aligned with" that of the wardens. Id. The wardens cannot "point[] to
anything in the [complaint or the evidence in the attachments] to show that they
relied on" compelling interests, and we cannot "manufacture facts out of thin air."
Salahuddin, 467 F.3d at 275 (emphasis added); see Barnes v. Furman, 629 F. App'x
52, 57 (2015) (summary order) (“[B]ecause defendants have not identified any
penological interests supporting the policy, we cannot assess the reasonableness
22 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
of their actions.").
Even if we could impute the FBOP officials' reasoning to the
wardens, it would not suffice. Under RFRA, it is not enough to offer "very broad
terms"; rather, RFRA demands "a more focused inquiry" that "requires the
Government to demonstrate that the compelling interest test is satisfied through
application of the challenged law to . . . the particular claimant whose sincere
exercise of religion is being substantially burdened." Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., 573
U.S. at 726 (internal quotation marks omitted). "This requires us to 'loo[k]
beyond broadly formulated interests' and to 'scrutiniz[e] the asserted harm of
granting specific exemptions to particular religious claimants . . . .'" Id. at 726-27
(quoting Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal, 546 U.S. 418,
431 (2006)). The FBOP officials' statements do not explain how the wardens'
enforcement of this policy against Sabir and Conyers served an interest in "the
orderly running of the institution," or "security and budgetary constraints."
Responses of J.L. Norwood and Ian Connors, supra at J.A. 51, 61. They offer only
"broadly formulated interests," which are insufficient to satisfy RFRA. 6 Hobby
6This not to say that the plaintiffs would necessarily fail to state a claim under RFRA if the wardens, in their responses to the plaintiffs’ grievances, had identified a sufficiently specific interest furthered by the policy. So long as the plaintiffs plausibly allege that
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Lobby Stores, Inc., 573 U.S. at 726.
Further, FBOP officials offered only conclusory assertions that the
policy was the "least restrictive alternative," Responses of J.L. Norwood and Ian
Connors, supra at J.A. 51, 61, and even if these claims were attributable to the
wardens, we could not credit them in our review since the plaintiffs plausibly
allege that the policy is more restrictive than necessary. See Williams v. Annucci,
895 F.3d 180, 192 (2d Cir. 2018) ("Taking the [government] at its word under such
circumstances would involve 'a degree of deference that is tantamount to
unquestioning acceptance.'" (quoting Holt, 574 U.S. at 364)). Indeed, it seems
highly unlikely that the policy is narrowly tailored considering the fact that,
according to the SAC, comparable secular activities—including inmate-led
fitness classes and card games—do not face similar restrictions. See Williams, 895
F.3d at 193 ("[U]nexplained disparate treatment of 'analogous nonreligious
conduct' leads us to suspect that a narrower policy that burdens [the plaintiffs] to
a lesser degree is in fact possible."); Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., 573 U.S. at 730
(noting that the government "itself has demonstrated that it has at its disposal an
any purported interests are pretextual—as they have done here by asserting that there is no meaningful justification for the policy and pointing to comparable secular activities that are not restricted—the legitimacy of the officials’ justification for the policy would be an issue of fact incapable of resolution at the motion-to-dismiss stage. 24 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
approach that is less restrictive" because it "has already established an
accommodation" for others). 7
Based on the pleadings and other material available to us on review,
we thus conclude that Sabir and Conyers have plausibly alleged that the
wardens' enforcement of the group-prayer policy against them violated RFRA.
C. Whether the Right was "Clearly Established"
Having determined that the plaintiffs pled a RFRA violation, we
must address the second prong of the qualified immunity analysis: whether "the
right [at issue] was clearly established at the time of the challenged conduct."
Francis, 942 F.3d at 139 (internal quotation marks omitted). We conclude that the
plaintiffs' rights under RFRA were clearly established at the time of the alleged
1. Legal Standard
Although the scope of qualified immunity is considered broad
enough to protect "all but the plainly incompetent or those who knowingly
violate the law," it is not available when an officer's actions are not objectively
7This "underinclusiveness" also counsels against a finding that the policy serves a compelling governmental interest. Williams, 895 F.3d at 189; see also id. at 191 ("Such unexplained disparate treatment of 'analogous nonreligious conduct' leads us to question whether the [government's] interest . . . is as compelling as it suggests . . . ."). 25 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
reasonable in light of clearly established law. Ziglar v. Abbasi, 137 S. Ct. 1843,
1867 (2017) (internal quotation marks omitted). "To determine whether the
relevant law was clearly established, we consider the specificity with which a
right is defined, the existence of Supreme Court or Court of Appeals case law on
the subject, and the understanding of a reasonable officer in light of preexisting
law." Terebesi v. Torreso, 764 F.3d 217, 231 (2d Cir. 2014). Precedent "directly on
point" is not required for law to be clearly established, District of Columbia v.
Wesby, 138 S. Ct. 577, 590 (2018), and "[i]t is not necessary, of course, that the very
action in question has previously been held unlawful," Abbasi, 137 S. Ct. at 1866
(internal quotation marks omitted). Thus, "the absence of a decision by this
Court or the Supreme Court directly addressing the right at issue will not
preclude a finding that the law was clearly established so long as preexisting law
clearly foreshadows a particular ruling on the issue." Garcia v. Does, 779 F.3d 84,
92 (2d Cir. 2015) (internal quotation marks and brackets omitted).
2. Qualified Immunity at the Pleadings Stage
The Supreme Court has "repeatedly . . . stressed the importance of
resolving immunity questions at the earliest possible stage in litigation.” Hunter
v. Bryant, 502 U.S. 224, 227 (1991). "But there is an obvious, if rarely expressed,
26 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
corollary to that principle: The immunity question cannot be resolved before the
earliest possible stage, i.e., prior to ascertainment of the truth of the plausible
factual allegations on which a finding of qualified immunity is premised."
Chamberlain, 960 F.3d at 110 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted).
The wardens chose to press their qualified immunity defense at the
pleadings stage, and they therefore must face the "more stringent standard
applicable to this procedural route." McKenna v. Wright, 386 F.3d 432, 436 (2d
Cir. 2004). "Not only must the facts supporting the defense appear on the face of
the complaint [or the evidence in its attachments], but . . . the motion may be
granted only where it appears beyond doubt that the plaintiff can prove no set of
facts in support of his claim that would entitle him to relief." Id. (internal
quotation marks and citation omitted). On a motion to dismiss, the plaintiffs are
"entitled to all reasonable inferences from the facts alleged, not only those that
support [their] claim, but also those that defeat the immunity defense." Id.
For this reason, we have explained that "advancing qualified
immunity as grounds for a motion to dismiss is almost always a procedural
mismatch." Chamberlain, 960 F.3d at 111. Although it is possible for a qualified
immunity defense to succeed on a motion to dismiss, see Liberian Cmty. Ass'n of
27 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
Connecticut v. Lamont, 970 F.3d 174, 186 (2d Cir. 2020), such a defense "faces a
formidable hurdle . . . and is usually not successful,” Field Day, LLC v. County of
Suffolk, 463 F.3d 167, 191-92 (2d Cir. 2006) (internal quotation marks omitted); see
also Chamberlain, 960 F.3d at 110 ("[A]s a general rule, the defense of qualified
immunity cannot support the grant of a [Rule] 12(b)(6) motion." (internal
quotation marks omitted)).
3. Application
A reasonable officer should have known, based on clearly
established law, that denying a Muslim inmate the ability to engage in group
prayer without any justification or compelling interest, as alleged in the SAC,
violates RFRA.
In 2006, we held in Salahuddin that it was clearly established that
prison officials cannot substantially burden inmates' religious exercise without
offering any justification. 467 F.3d at 275-76. There, we concluded that prison
officials violated inmates' religious freedom under both RLUIPA and the First
Amendment by requiring Sunni Muslims and Shi’ite Muslims to pray and fast
jointly for Ramadan. See id. at 270, 275. Defendants had "not pointed to anything
in the record to show that they relied on legitimate penological justifications" and
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"our review of the record [did not] reveal any such evidence." Id. at 275.
"Without some support in the record, we [could not] find that [prison] officials
were worried that separate services would endanger inmates, or were short on
space for separate services, or had some other reason for mandating the joint
services." Id. "Although the facts at trial might [have] show[n] otherwise," even
at the summary judgment stage in Salahuddin, the lack of evidence of the policy's
justification "establish[ed] that [the plaintiff's] free-exercise rights were
substantially burdened by a joint-worship policy not justified by . . . [a]
compelling governmental interest . . . ." Id.
In addition to showing that violations of the plaintiff's constitutional
and statutory rights had occurred, the lack of justification for the policy's
enforcement in the record made clear that "[q]ualified immunity [was] not
appropriate" even at the summary judgment stage "because it was clearly
established at the time of the alleged violations that prison officials may not
substantially burden inmates' right to religious exercise without some
justification." Id. at 275-76. "[W]e [could not] say as a matter of law that it was
objectively reasonable for any defendant to believe that the facts as they [stood]
on summary judgment showed no violation of a clearly established right." Id. at
29 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
276.
In the case at bar, we are at an even earlier stage of litigation than we
were in Salahuddin. We are limited here to the allegations in the complaint and
the evidence in the attachments to it. The wardens cannot point to any
justification in that material for their imposition of a substantial burden on
Sabir's and Conyers's religious exercise. 8 To repeat yet again, as in Salahuddin,
"although the facts at trial" or summary judgment "might show otherwise," we
cannot "manufacture [such] facts out of thin air." Id. at 275. Because it was
clearly established at the time of the alleged violations of Sabir and Conyers's
RFRA rights that the wardens could "not substantially burden inmates' right to
religious exercise without some justification," "[q]ualified immunity is not
appropriate at this stage" of the proceedings. Id. at 275-76. 9
8 Nor can the officials seriously dispute that it was clearly established that preventing a prisoner from engaging in congregational prayer constitutes a substantial burden on the prisoner’s religious exercise. As we explained above, we have consistently recognized that policies restricting access to group prayer impose a burden on prisoners’ free exercise rights. See Salahuddin v. Coughlin, 993 F.2d at 308; Young v. Coughlin, 866 F.2d 567, 570 (2d Cir. 1989). 9 Our decision should not, of course, be read to suggest that the district court should
automatically grant summary judgment to defendants on qualified immunity grounds upon the introduction of any evidence that their enforcement of the policy served a compelling interest. On a motion for summary judgment, any "unchallenged and unresolved factual allegations" will be "viewed in the light most favorable to" Sabir and Conyers. Salahuddin, 467 F.3d at 275. It may be that the qualified immunity issue can
30 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
We reject the wardens' argument that Salahuddin's holding is an
"abstract legal principle" that "cannot establish law for purposes of qualified
immunity." Appellants' Br. at 17. There are, of course, some contexts in which a
higher degree of specificity is required to establish the law for purposes of
qualified immunity than in others. For example, the Fourth Amendment's
prohibition of "unreasonable searches and seizures" is an "abstract right[]"
because "it may be difficult for an officer to know whether a search or seizure
will be deemed reasonable given the precise situation encountered." Abbasi, 137
S. Ct. at 1866; see also Mullenix v. Luna, 577 U.S. 7, 12 (2015) (per curiam) ("Such
specificity is especially important in the Fourth Amendment context, where the
Court has recognized that it is sometimes difficult for an officer to determine
how the relevant legal doctrine . . . will apply to the factual situation the officer
confronts." (internal quotation marks and alteration omitted)). No such concerns
are present here. Based on RFRA's requirements, it is not "difficult for an
only be resolved at trial if, for instance, it appears that a justification offered by the defendants may be pretextual. Id. at 277 (holding that officials must prove they were "pursuing the interest . . . when limiting [the plaintiff's] religious exercise," so as to "ensure[] that prison officials actually had, not just could have had, a legitimate reason for burdening protected activity"). For example, a purported interest in security may be pretextual if comparable secular activities posing identical security concerns are not restricted. See Williams, 895 F.3d at 191-92. 31 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
[official] to know whether" an unjustified substantial burden on religious
exercise "will be deemed reasonable." Abbasi, 137 S. Ct. at 1866. As the text of the
statute itself explains: "Government may substantially burden a person's exercise
of religion only if it demonstrates that application of the burden to the person . . . is
in furtherance of a compelling governmental interest . . . ." 42 U.S.C. § 2000bb-1
(emphasis added); see also Okin v. Vill. of Cornwall-On-Hudson Police Dep't, 577
F.3d 415, 433-34 (2d Cir. 2009) (noting that courts "may examine statutory or
administrative provisions in conjunction with prevailing circuit or Supreme
Court law to determine whether an individual had fair warning that his or her
behavior would violate the victim's constitutional rights."). Put another way, if
an official substantially burdens a sincere religious exercise but cannot point to
evidence that the application of the burden was in service of any interest—let
alone a compelling one—the official has violated RFRA.
Thus, the wardens are not entitled to dismissal of the SAC on the
basis of qualified immunity because our case law, in conjunction with the text of
RFRA, clearly established at the time of the events at issue that substantially
burdening Sabir's and Conyers's religious exercise with no justification, as was
alleged by the plaintiffs, violated RFRA.
32 19-3575 Sabir v. Williams
CONCLUSION
We have considered the parties' remaining arguments on appeal and
conclude that they are without merit. For the reasons set forth above, we affirm
the district court's order.