W. EUGENE DAVIS and DUHÉ, Circuit Judges:
In this action under the ADEA for discriminatory discharge, we consider en banc the employer’s appeal from the district court’s denial of its motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict (JNOV). We agree with the district court that the evidence is sufficient to support the verdict and affirm.1
I.
Calvin Rhodes began his employment with Dresser Industries in 1955 as a salesman of products and services to the oil-industry. In [992]*9921986, the oil industry was in the throes of a severe economic downturn. In March of that year, in lieu of being laid off from his job at the Atlas Wireline Division of Dresser, Rhodes was offered a job selling oil field equipment at Compac, another Dresser company which subsequently became Guiberson Oil. Seven months later, on October 31, 1986, Guiberson Oil discharged Rhodes. At the time of his termination, Rhodes was fifty-six years old. In the severance report, Guiberson Oil stated that it had discharged Rhodes because of a reduction in work force and that it would consider rehiring him. Within two months, however, Guiberson Oil hired a forty-two-year-old salesman to do the same job.
Rhodes sued Guiberson Oil for violating the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, 29 U.S.C. §§ 621-634 (1988) (“ADEA”). A jury found that Guiberson Oil terminated Rhodes from his employment because of his age, but also found that Guiberson Oil had not willfully violated the ADEA.2 On remand, the magistrate judge found that Rhodes had sustained damages in the amount of $188,866.70 as a result of Guiberson Oil’s unlawful conduct.
Guiberson Oil prosecuted this appeal to challenge the judgment on grounds that it was not supported by sufficient evidence and the damages were excessive. A divided panel of this court agreed with Guiberson’s sufficiency argument and reversed and rendered judgment for Guiberson. We took the case en banc to consider the sufficiency question in light of the Supreme Court’s recent decision in St. Mary’s Honor Center v. Hicks, 509 U.S. 502, 113 S.Ct. 2742, 125 L.Ed.2d 407 (1993).
II.
Guiberson Oil contends that the evidence is insufficient to support the jury’s finding of age discrimination and argues that the district court erred in not granting its motions for a directed verdict or judgment notwithstanding the verdict.
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) makes it “unlawful for an employer ... to discharge any individual ... because of such individual’s age.” 29 U.S.C. § 623(a)(1) (1988). To establish a prima facie ease of age discrimination, the plaintiff “must demonstrate that: (1) he was discharged; (2) he was qualified for the position; (3) he was within the protected class at the time of the discharge; and (4) he was either i) replaced by someone outside the protected class, ii) replaced by someone younger, or iii) otherwise discharged because of his age.” Bodenheimer v. PPG Indus., Inc., 5 F.3d 955, 957 (5th Cir.1993).
Under the Supreme Court’s McDonnell Douglas-Burdine framework, the plaintiff first must establish a prima facie ease by a preponderance of the evidence; once established, the prima facie case raises an inference of unlawful discrimination.3 See Hicks at-, 113 S.Ct. at 2747; Texas Dep’t of Community Affairs v. Burdine, 450 U.S. 248, 252-53, 101 S.Ct. 1089, 1093, 67 L.Ed.2d 207 (1981); McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green, 411 U.S. 792, 802, 93 S.Ct. 1817, 1824, 36 L.Ed.2d 668 (1973). The burden of production then shifts to the defendant to proffer a legitimate, nondiscriminatory reason for [993]*993the challenged employment action. Hicks, 509 U.S. at-, 113 S.Ct. at 2747; Burdine, 450 U.S. at 253, 101 S.Ct. at 1093; McDonnell Douglas, 411 U.S. at 802, 93 S.Ct. at 1824. The defendant may meet this burden by presenting evidence that, “if believed by the trier of fact, would support a finding that unlawful discrimination was not the cause of the employment action.” Hicks, 509 U.S. at- -, 113 S.Ct. at 2747. If the defendant meets its burden, the presumption raised by the plaintiffs prima facie case disappears. Burdine, 450 U.S. at 255 & n. 10, 101 S.Ct. at 1094 & n. 10. However, the plaintiff is accorded the opportunity to demonstrate that the defendant’s articulated rationale was merely a pretext for discrimination. See Hicks, 509 U.S. at---, 113 S.Ct. at 2747-48; Burdine, 450 U.S. at 253, 101 S.Ct. at 1093; McDonnell Douglas, 411 U.S. at 804-05, 93 S.Ct. at 1825.
According to Hicks, such evidence of pretext will permit a trier of fact to infer that the discrimination was intentional:
The factfinder’s disbelief of the reasons put forward by the defendant (particularly if disbelief is accompanied by a suspicion of mendacity) may, together with the elements of the prima facie case, suffice to show intentional discrimination. Thus, rejection of the defendant’s proffered reasons, will permit the trier of fact to infer the ultimate fact of intentional discrimination, and the Court of Appeals was correct when it noted that, upon such rejection, “[n]o additional proof of discrimination is required----”
509 U.S. at-, 113 S.Ct. at 2749 (footnote and citation omitted) (quoting lower court). It is unclear, however, whether the Court intended that in all such eases in which an inference of discrimination is permitted' a verdict of discrimination is necessarily supported by sufficient evidence.
We believe that the question does not yield a categorical answer. Rather, we are convinced that ordinarily such verdicts would be supported by sufficient evidence, but not always. The answer lies in our traditional sufficieney-of-the-evidence analysis. See Deborah C. Malamud, The Last Minuet: Disparate Treatment After Hicks, 93 Mich. L.Rev. 2229, 2305 (1995) (noting that “the Court stressed in Hicks that once a McDonnell Douglas-Bwrdine case reaches the pretext stage, it is to be treated like any other civil case.”). We test jury verdicts and- motions for summary judgment for sufficiency of the evidence under the Boeing Co. v. Shipman, 411 F.2d 365 (5th Cir.1969) (en banc), standard.4 Under Boeing, “[t]here must be a conflict in substantial evidence to create a jury question.” Id. at 375. Substantial evidence is defined as “evidence of such quality and weight that reasonable and fair-minded men in the exercise of impartial judgment might reach different conclusions.” Id. at 374. Consequently, “[a] mere scintilla of evidence is insufficient to present a question for the jury.” Id. Even if the evidence is more than a scintilla, “Boeing
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W. EUGENE DAVIS and DUHÉ, Circuit Judges:
In this action under the ADEA for discriminatory discharge, we consider en banc the employer’s appeal from the district court’s denial of its motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict (JNOV). We agree with the district court that the evidence is sufficient to support the verdict and affirm.1
I.
Calvin Rhodes began his employment with Dresser Industries in 1955 as a salesman of products and services to the oil-industry. In [992]*9921986, the oil industry was in the throes of a severe economic downturn. In March of that year, in lieu of being laid off from his job at the Atlas Wireline Division of Dresser, Rhodes was offered a job selling oil field equipment at Compac, another Dresser company which subsequently became Guiberson Oil. Seven months later, on October 31, 1986, Guiberson Oil discharged Rhodes. At the time of his termination, Rhodes was fifty-six years old. In the severance report, Guiberson Oil stated that it had discharged Rhodes because of a reduction in work force and that it would consider rehiring him. Within two months, however, Guiberson Oil hired a forty-two-year-old salesman to do the same job.
Rhodes sued Guiberson Oil for violating the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, 29 U.S.C. §§ 621-634 (1988) (“ADEA”). A jury found that Guiberson Oil terminated Rhodes from his employment because of his age, but also found that Guiberson Oil had not willfully violated the ADEA.2 On remand, the magistrate judge found that Rhodes had sustained damages in the amount of $188,866.70 as a result of Guiberson Oil’s unlawful conduct.
Guiberson Oil prosecuted this appeal to challenge the judgment on grounds that it was not supported by sufficient evidence and the damages were excessive. A divided panel of this court agreed with Guiberson’s sufficiency argument and reversed and rendered judgment for Guiberson. We took the case en banc to consider the sufficiency question in light of the Supreme Court’s recent decision in St. Mary’s Honor Center v. Hicks, 509 U.S. 502, 113 S.Ct. 2742, 125 L.Ed.2d 407 (1993).
II.
Guiberson Oil contends that the evidence is insufficient to support the jury’s finding of age discrimination and argues that the district court erred in not granting its motions for a directed verdict or judgment notwithstanding the verdict.
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) makes it “unlawful for an employer ... to discharge any individual ... because of such individual’s age.” 29 U.S.C. § 623(a)(1) (1988). To establish a prima facie ease of age discrimination, the plaintiff “must demonstrate that: (1) he was discharged; (2) he was qualified for the position; (3) he was within the protected class at the time of the discharge; and (4) he was either i) replaced by someone outside the protected class, ii) replaced by someone younger, or iii) otherwise discharged because of his age.” Bodenheimer v. PPG Indus., Inc., 5 F.3d 955, 957 (5th Cir.1993).
Under the Supreme Court’s McDonnell Douglas-Burdine framework, the plaintiff first must establish a prima facie ease by a preponderance of the evidence; once established, the prima facie case raises an inference of unlawful discrimination.3 See Hicks at-, 113 S.Ct. at 2747; Texas Dep’t of Community Affairs v. Burdine, 450 U.S. 248, 252-53, 101 S.Ct. 1089, 1093, 67 L.Ed.2d 207 (1981); McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green, 411 U.S. 792, 802, 93 S.Ct. 1817, 1824, 36 L.Ed.2d 668 (1973). The burden of production then shifts to the defendant to proffer a legitimate, nondiscriminatory reason for [993]*993the challenged employment action. Hicks, 509 U.S. at-, 113 S.Ct. at 2747; Burdine, 450 U.S. at 253, 101 S.Ct. at 1093; McDonnell Douglas, 411 U.S. at 802, 93 S.Ct. at 1824. The defendant may meet this burden by presenting evidence that, “if believed by the trier of fact, would support a finding that unlawful discrimination was not the cause of the employment action.” Hicks, 509 U.S. at- -, 113 S.Ct. at 2747. If the defendant meets its burden, the presumption raised by the plaintiffs prima facie case disappears. Burdine, 450 U.S. at 255 & n. 10, 101 S.Ct. at 1094 & n. 10. However, the plaintiff is accorded the opportunity to demonstrate that the defendant’s articulated rationale was merely a pretext for discrimination. See Hicks, 509 U.S. at---, 113 S.Ct. at 2747-48; Burdine, 450 U.S. at 253, 101 S.Ct. at 1093; McDonnell Douglas, 411 U.S. at 804-05, 93 S.Ct. at 1825.
According to Hicks, such evidence of pretext will permit a trier of fact to infer that the discrimination was intentional:
The factfinder’s disbelief of the reasons put forward by the defendant (particularly if disbelief is accompanied by a suspicion of mendacity) may, together with the elements of the prima facie case, suffice to show intentional discrimination. Thus, rejection of the defendant’s proffered reasons, will permit the trier of fact to infer the ultimate fact of intentional discrimination, and the Court of Appeals was correct when it noted that, upon such rejection, “[n]o additional proof of discrimination is required----”
509 U.S. at-, 113 S.Ct. at 2749 (footnote and citation omitted) (quoting lower court). It is unclear, however, whether the Court intended that in all such eases in which an inference of discrimination is permitted' a verdict of discrimination is necessarily supported by sufficient evidence.
We believe that the question does not yield a categorical answer. Rather, we are convinced that ordinarily such verdicts would be supported by sufficient evidence, but not always. The answer lies in our traditional sufficieney-of-the-evidence analysis. See Deborah C. Malamud, The Last Minuet: Disparate Treatment After Hicks, 93 Mich. L.Rev. 2229, 2305 (1995) (noting that “the Court stressed in Hicks that once a McDonnell Douglas-Bwrdine case reaches the pretext stage, it is to be treated like any other civil case.”). We test jury verdicts and- motions for summary judgment for sufficiency of the evidence under the Boeing Co. v. Shipman, 411 F.2d 365 (5th Cir.1969) (en banc), standard.4 Under Boeing, “[t]here must be a conflict in substantial evidence to create a jury question.” Id. at 375. Substantial evidence is defined as “evidence of such quality and weight that reasonable and fair-minded men in the exercise of impartial judgment might reach different conclusions.” Id. at 374. Consequently, “[a] mere scintilla of evidence is insufficient to present a question for the jury.” Id. Even if the evidence is more than a scintilla, “Boeing assumes that some evidence may exist to support a position which is yet so overwhelmed by contrary proof as to yield to a directed verdict.” Neely v. Delta Brick and Tile Co., Inc., 817 F.2d 1224, 1226 (5th Cir.1987).
Our Boeing analysis applies to circumstantial as well as direct evidence. Because direct evidence is rare in discrimination eases, a plaintiff must ordinarily use circumstantial evidence to satisfy her burden of persuasion. See Davis v. Chevron U.S.A., Inc., 14 F.3d 1082, 1085 (5th Cir.1994). Thus, this circuit has held repeatedly that a plaintiff need not provide direct evidence to sustain a jury finding of discrimination. See, e.g., Burns v. Texas City Refining, Inc., 890 F.2d 747, 751 (5th Cir.1989). Similarly, Hicks does not cast aside circumstantial evidence as a means of allowing a factfinder to infer discrimination.
In an ADEA case, as in any lawsuit, a court must examine both circumstantial and direct evidence in deciding the sufficiency of the evidence to support a jury determination that the employer used age as [994]*994a determinative factor in making the employment decision. See United States Postal Service Board of Governors v. Aikens, 460 U.S. 711, 714 n. 3, 103 S.Ct. 1478, 1481 n. 3, 75 L.Ed.2d 403 (1983). Age need not be the sole reason for the adverse employment decision; however, “a disparate treatment claim cannot succeed unless the employee’s protected trait actually played a role in ... [the employer’s decisionmaking process] and had a determinative influence on the outcome.” Hazen Paper Co. v. Biggins, 507 U.S. 604, 610, 113 S.Ct. 1701, 1706, 123 L.Ed.2d 338 (1993), If age does not motivate the employer’s decision, then a “discharge may well be unfair or even unlawful yet not be evidence of age bias under the ADEA.” Moore v. Eli Lilly & Co., 990 F.2d 812, 819 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 114 S.Ct. 467, 126 L.Ed.2d 419 (1993).
To sustain a finding of discrimination, circumstantial evidence must be such as to allow a rational factfinder to make a reasonable inference that age was a determinative reason for the employment decision. The factfinder may rely on all the evidence in the record to draw this inference of discrimination. In tandem with a prima facie case, the evidence allowing rejection of the employer’s proffered reasons will often, perhaps usually, permit a finding of discrimination without additional evidence. Thus, a jury issue will be presented and a plaintiff can avoid summary judgment and judgment as a matter of law if the evidence taken as a whole (1) creates a fact issue as to whether each of the employer’s stated reasons was what actually motivated the employer and (2) creates a reasonable inference that age was a determinative factor in the actions of which plaintiff complains. The employer, of course, will be entitled to summary judgment if the evidence taken as a whole would not allow a jury to infer that the actual reason for the discharge was discriminatory.
The evidence necessary to support an inference of discrimination will vary from case to case. A jury may be able to infer discriminatory intent in an appropriate case from substantial evidence that the employer’s proffered reasons are false. The evidence may, for example, strongly indicate that the employer has introduced fabricated justifications for an employee’s discharge, and not otherwise suggest a credible nondiscriminatory explanation.
By contrast, if the evidence put forth by the plaintiff to establish the prima facie case and to rebut the employer’s reasons is not substantial, a jury cannot reasonably infer discriminatory intent. See Malamud, 93 Mich.L.Rev. at 2308 (“There may be cases in which the [prima facie case and proof of pretext] goes the plaintiff’s way, but a judgment for the plaintiff would still be legally questionable.”) In some cases, for instance, the fact that one of the nondiscriminatory reasons in the record has proved highly questionable may not be sufficient to cast doubt on the remaining reasons. Likewise, an employer’s explanation for its proffer of a pretextual reason may preclude a finding of discrimination. See Woods v. Friction Materials, 30 F.3d 255, 261 n. 3 (1st Cir.1994) (concluding that a jury could not infer age discrimination if the employer’s articulated nondiscriminatory reason was that the employee lacked necessary work skills, but that the employer’s real reason was to conceal its own acts of embezzlement); Binder v. Long Island Lighting Co., 57 F.3d 193, 200 (2nd Cir.1995) (“Such an explanation might include, for example, protection of a business secret or even protection of the reputation of an employee who had engaged in undesirable conduct.”).
When a plaintiff has offered pretextual evidence that allows a factfinder to reject the defendant’s proffered reasons and infer discrimination, other circuits have been unwilling to upset a jury verdict for the plaintiff.5 [995]*995In each of these eases, the factfinder could infer discrimination from evidence that the employer’s proffered nondiseriminatory explanations were pretextual. In addition, several cases directly support the view that the evidence must permit an inference of discrimination to sustain a jury verdict for the plaintiff.6 Therefore, our requirement that the evidence create an inference of discrimination comports with other circuit’s caselaw.
We now turn to an application of the above principles to the record evidence in this ease to determine whether enough evidence was produced to allow a rational jury to find that the true reason for Rhodes’ discharge was age discrimination. In .answering this question, we view all the evidence in the light most favorable to the verdict. See Boeing, 411 F.2d at 374.
III.
A.
Lee Snyder terminated Rhodes on October 31, 1986. Mr. Snyder told Rhodes he was part of a reduction in force (RIF) because of adverse economic conditions that persisted in the oilfield. Snyder told Rhodes, however that Guiberson would consider him for reemployment. Rhodes’ personnel file reflected this same reason for the discharge. It was uncontradicted that Rhodes’ position remained unfilled for only 6 weeks and that Guiberson knew at the time of termination or soon after that Rhodes would be replaced. Charles Baxter, the Guiberson representative, testified that he became the sales manager for the New Orleans area effective November 1, 1986 and within a few weeks knew that he would need another sales representative. By December 15, 1986, Rhodes’ replacement, forty-two year old Rick Attaway, had already been hired at a salary of $36,000.
Lee Snyder, Rhodes’ supervisor, testified via deposition that more than one salesman was clearly needed for the territory. Jack Givens, who had been Snyder’s supervisor, testified that he told Snyder to replace Rhodes. Givens also testified that the business required more than one salesman, and that Rick Attaway, had been hired to replace Rhodes. James Sewell, Snyder’s other supervisor, testified that Rhodes was told that his position was being eliminated and that this statement was not true. The evidence supports a finding that Guiberson did not tell Rhodes the truth about why it was discharging him.
B.
Guiberson Oil’s defense at trial was not that Rhodes was RIF’d, but that he was discharged because of his poor work performance. Here too, Rhodes presented evidence to counter Guiberson’s assertion. *
Rhodes customers’ testified that Rhodes was an excellent salesman who only lost bids when Guiberson’s price was too high. Johnny Ford of CNG Producing Company described Rhodes’ performance as follows: “I’ve only known one other salesman in my career that I think equals Calvin’s expertise as a salesman.” Leroy Lehmann of Odeco Oil and Gas testified that Rhodes called on his company many times, that Odeco had accepted some of his bids, that Rhodes “possessed the technical skills and ability to explain what he was selling,” and that he had no complaints about Rhodes’ performance. Terrence Oliver of Texaco testified that Rhodes had made several calls on his company, that Rhodes knew what he was doing, performed. his job, and had the technical skills necessary to sell his product. Joshua [996]*996Patterson of LGS Exploration testified that Rhodes explained his product to Patterson’s satisfaction, that Patterson had no problems with Rhodes’ technical skills or abilities, that Rhodes was doing his job, and that the other Guiberson salesmen had not called on his company. George Armistead of Union Oil testified that Rhodes called on him every three to six weeks, that Rhodes “not only did what I say he should have done, but he’d go beyond the call of duty,” that Rhodes would follow up on projects and “dealt with you in a very professional manner.” Kerry Allen of Placid Oil testified that Rhodes answered his questions to his satisfaction, explained the product, and “handled himself very professionally.”
Guiberson officials’ testimony also provided support for Rhodes’ contention that Guiberson’s “productivity” justification of his termination was a pretext for age discrimination. i Lee Snyder testified that the memo placed in Rhodes’ file explaining that Rhodes lacked technical expertise in downhole operations was substantially true but noted that it was also a “CYA ... (cover your _ss)” letter. Snyder testified that Rhodes was a good salesman with strong customer contacts and noted that Jack Givens — Snyder’s boss who instructed Snyder to fire Rhodes — once, said that he could hire two young salesmen for what some of the older salesmen were costing. Snyder quickly backed away from this statement and said that Givens had said he could hire two new salesman for what some of the others were costing him. Givens said he was not aware of telling Snyder this. He also admitted that he had never talked to any of Rhodes’ customers about Rhodes’ performance as a salesman.
James Sewell, Snyder’s other supervisor, testified that he had been very impressed with Rhodes’ sales plans and that technical ability was not necessary to sell the product. He also testified that Rhodes had a poor customer base, but admitted that he did not know who Rhodes’ customers were, had not talked to any of Rhodes’ customers, and had no documentation to support his testimony about Rhodes’ poor performance.
Lloyd Allen, the other salesman in the New Orleans office with whom Rhodes was compared, at first testified that his sales were much higher than Rhodes’ but clarified on cross-examination that Rhodes’ sales during the period in question nearly matched his own. Allen also admitted that the records supporting his testimony may have been incomplete, that Rhodes may have made another sale for which Allen had not credited him, and that another salesman may have been responsible for one of the sales Allen credited to himself. Rhodes conceded that his sales were lower than Lloyd Allen’s but noted that Allen was selling to companies that did not always take the lowest bid and that Allen had been in New Orleans longer than Rhodes and thus had discovered which companies did this.
Guiberson produced no definitive records reflecting the sales of Rhodes, Allen, Attaway, or any of its other salesmen. Nor did Guiberson reveal the sales volume it expected Rhodes and the other salesmen to meet.
Based on this evidence, the jury was entitled to find that the reasons given for Rhodes’ discharge were pretexts for age discrimination. The jury was entitled to find that Guiberson’s states reason for discharging Rhodes — RIF—was false. Additionally, the reason for discharge that Guiberson Oil proffered in court to meet Rhodes’ prima facie case was countered with evidence from which the jury could have found that Rhodes was an excellent salesman who met Guiberson Oil’s legitimate productivity expectations. Viewing this evidence in the light most favorable to Rhodes, a reasonable jury could have found that Guiberson Oil discriminated against Rhodes on the basis of his age.
Conclusion
After considering all of the evidence in the record under the standard set forth in Boeing Co. v. Shipman, we are convinced that the district court properly accepted the jury’s verdict on liability and willfulness. Guiberson Oil’s motion for JNOV was properly denied. The panel did not reach Guiberson’s contention that the damages the district [997]*997court awarded are excessive and we remand this issue to the panel for disposition.
AFFIRMED.