Whitehouse v. USDC for RI
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Whitehouse v. USDC for RI, (1st Cir. 1995).
Opinion
USCA1 Opinion
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE FIRST CIRCUIT
____________________
No. 94-1776
SHELDON WHITEHOUSE, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY
AS UNITED STATES ATTORNEY FOR THE DISTRICT
OF RHODE ISLAND, ET AL.,
Plaintiffs - Appellees,
v.
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF RHODE ISLAND, ET AL.,
Defendants - Appellants.
____________________
No. 94-1777
SHELDON WHITEHOUSE, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY
AS UNITED STATES ATTORNEY FOR THE DISTRICT
OF RHODE ISLAND, ET AL.,
Plaintiffs - Appellees,
v.
SUPREME COURT OF RHODE ISLAND, ACTING CHIEF JUSTICE
JOSEPH R. WEISBERGER, FLORENCE K. MURRAY, DONALD F. SHEA,
VICTORIA LEDERBERG AND DAVID D. CURTAIN,
AS ACTING CHIEF DISCIPLINARY COUNSEL, ET AL.
Defendants - Appellants.
____________________
No. 94-1889
SHELDON WHITEHOUSE, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY
AS UNITED STATES ATTORNEY FOR THE DISTRICT
OF RHODE ISLAND, ET AL.,
Plaintiffs - Appellants,
v.
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF RHODE ISLAND, ET AL.,
Defendants - Appellees.
____________________
APPEALS FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE
[Hon. Paul J. Barbadoro, U.S. District Judge] ___________________
____________________
Before
Torruella, Chief Judge, ___________
Bownes, Senior Circuit Judge, ____________________
and Cyr, Circuit Judge. _____________
_____________________
Warren C. Nighswander, with whom Sulloway & Hollis was on ______________________ _________________
brief for appellants U.S. District Court for the District of
Rhode Island, et al.
John F. Dolan, with whom Elizabeth F. Sullivan and Rice ______________ ______________________ ____
Dolan & Kershaw were on brief for appellants Supreme Court of _______________
Rhode Island, et al.
Lauren E. Jones and Jones Associates on brief for American _______________ ________________
Civil Liberties Union, Rhode Island Affiliate, National
Association of Criminal Defense Attorneys and Rhode Island
Association of Criminal Defense Attorneys, amici curiae.
S. Michael Levin, Mark W. Freel, Melissa D. Famiglietti and ________________ ______________ ______________________
Edwards & Angell on brief for the Rhode Island Bar Association, ________________
amicus curiae.
Margaret E. Curran, Assistant United States Attorney, with __________________
whom Craig N. Moore, Assistant United States Attorney, and Sara ______________ ____
Criscitelli, U.S. Department of Justice, were on brief for ___________
appellees.
____________________
April 20, 1995
____________________
-2-
TORRUELLA, Chief Judge. The main question for decision TORRUELLA, Chief Judge ___________
is whether a United States District Court has the power to adopt
a local rule that requires federal prosecutors to obtain judicial
approval before they serve a subpoena on an attorney to compel
evidence concerning a client. The United States District Court
for New Hampshire held that the federal district court in Rhode
Island has the power to adopt such a rule with respect to trial
subpoenas, but does not have the power to do so with respect to
grand jury subpoenas. For the reasons stated herein, we conclude
that the United States District Court for Rhode Island has the
power to adopt the local rule in question, both with respect to
trial and grand jury subpoenas. We therefore affirm in part and
reverse in part.
BACKGROUND BACKGROUND
To fully appreciate the important interests at stake in
this case, it is necessary briefly to review some of the recent
history leading to this lawsuit.
I. Attorney-Subpoenas I. Attorney-Subpoenas __________________
Until recently, federal prosecutors rarely subpoenaed
attorneys to compel testimony relating to their clients. This
practice changed in the 1980s as the federal government stepped
up its fight against organized crime and narcotics trafficking.
Most significantly, Congress passed several new federal statutes
which, in the eyes of federal prosecutors, make attorneys fertile
ground for eliciting incriminating information about the targets
-3-
of federal investigations and prosecutions.1
Because service of a subpoena on an attorney implicates
the attorney-client relationship, and thus raises ethical issues
for prosecutors, the United States Department of Justice issued
guidelines for federal prosecutors seeking to subpoena an
attorney. See Executive Office for the United States Attorneys, ___
Department of Justice, United States Attorneys' Manual 9-
____________________
1 See generally Federal Prosecutorial Authority in a Changing _____________ _______________________________________________
Legal Environment: More Attention Required, H.R. Rep. No. 986, ____________________________________________
101st Cong., 2d Sess. 31 (1990) (chronicling the increased use of
attorney subpoenas); Roger C. Cramton, Lisa K. Udell, State _____
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USCA1 Opinion
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE FIRST CIRCUIT
____________________
No. 94-1776
SHELDON WHITEHOUSE, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY
AS UNITED STATES ATTORNEY FOR THE DISTRICT
OF RHODE ISLAND, ET AL.,
Plaintiffs - Appellees,
v.
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF RHODE ISLAND, ET AL.,
Defendants - Appellants.
____________________
No. 94-1777
SHELDON WHITEHOUSE, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY
AS UNITED STATES ATTORNEY FOR THE DISTRICT
OF RHODE ISLAND, ET AL.,
Plaintiffs - Appellees,
v.
SUPREME COURT OF RHODE ISLAND, ACTING CHIEF JUSTICE
JOSEPH R. WEISBERGER, FLORENCE K. MURRAY, DONALD F. SHEA,
VICTORIA LEDERBERG AND DAVID D. CURTAIN,
AS ACTING CHIEF DISCIPLINARY COUNSEL, ET AL.
Defendants - Appellants.
____________________
No. 94-1889
SHELDON WHITEHOUSE, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY
AS UNITED STATES ATTORNEY FOR THE DISTRICT
OF RHODE ISLAND, ET AL.,
Plaintiffs - Appellants,
v.
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF RHODE ISLAND, ET AL.,
Defendants - Appellees.
____________________
APPEALS FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE
[Hon. Paul J. Barbadoro, U.S. District Judge] ___________________
____________________
Before
Torruella, Chief Judge, ___________
Bownes, Senior Circuit Judge, ____________________
and Cyr, Circuit Judge. _____________
_____________________
Warren C. Nighswander, with whom Sulloway & Hollis was on ______________________ _________________
brief for appellants U.S. District Court for the District of
Rhode Island, et al.
John F. Dolan, with whom Elizabeth F. Sullivan and Rice ______________ ______________________ ____
Dolan & Kershaw were on brief for appellants Supreme Court of _______________
Rhode Island, et al.
Lauren E. Jones and Jones Associates on brief for American _______________ ________________
Civil Liberties Union, Rhode Island Affiliate, National
Association of Criminal Defense Attorneys and Rhode Island
Association of Criminal Defense Attorneys, amici curiae.
S. Michael Levin, Mark W. Freel, Melissa D. Famiglietti and ________________ ______________ ______________________
Edwards & Angell on brief for the Rhode Island Bar Association, ________________
amicus curiae.
Margaret E. Curran, Assistant United States Attorney, with __________________
whom Craig N. Moore, Assistant United States Attorney, and Sara ______________ ____
Criscitelli, U.S. Department of Justice, were on brief for ___________
appellees.
____________________
April 20, 1995
____________________
-2-
TORRUELLA, Chief Judge. The main question for decision TORRUELLA, Chief Judge ___________
is whether a United States District Court has the power to adopt
a local rule that requires federal prosecutors to obtain judicial
approval before they serve a subpoena on an attorney to compel
evidence concerning a client. The United States District Court
for New Hampshire held that the federal district court in Rhode
Island has the power to adopt such a rule with respect to trial
subpoenas, but does not have the power to do so with respect to
grand jury subpoenas. For the reasons stated herein, we conclude
that the United States District Court for Rhode Island has the
power to adopt the local rule in question, both with respect to
trial and grand jury subpoenas. We therefore affirm in part and
reverse in part.
BACKGROUND BACKGROUND
To fully appreciate the important interests at stake in
this case, it is necessary briefly to review some of the recent
history leading to this lawsuit.
I. Attorney-Subpoenas I. Attorney-Subpoenas __________________
Until recently, federal prosecutors rarely subpoenaed
attorneys to compel testimony relating to their clients. This
practice changed in the 1980s as the federal government stepped
up its fight against organized crime and narcotics trafficking.
Most significantly, Congress passed several new federal statutes
which, in the eyes of federal prosecutors, make attorneys fertile
ground for eliciting incriminating information about the targets
-3-
of federal investigations and prosecutions.1
Because service of a subpoena on an attorney implicates
the attorney-client relationship, and thus raises ethical issues
for prosecutors, the United States Department of Justice issued
guidelines for federal prosecutors seeking to subpoena an
attorney. See Executive Office for the United States Attorneys, ___
Department of Justice, United States Attorneys' Manual 9-
____________________
1 See generally Federal Prosecutorial Authority in a Changing _____________ _______________________________________________
Legal Environment: More Attention Required, H.R. Rep. No. 986, ____________________________________________
101st Cong., 2d Sess. 31 (1990) (chronicling the increased use of
attorney subpoenas); Roger C. Cramton, Lisa K. Udell, State _____
Ethics Rules and Federal Prosecutors: The Controversies over the _________________________________________________________________
Anti-Contact and Subpoena Rules, 53 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 357, 362-69 ________________________________
(1992) (same).
New federal laws with implications for the attorney-client
relationship include: the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt
Organizations Act, 18 U.S.C. 1961-68 (1988); the Continuing
Criminal Enterprise Act, 21 U.S.C. 848 (1988) (evidence that
legal representation was provided by a benefactor, for
participation in a criminal enterprise, relevant to prove
existence of criminal enterprise); the Comprehensive Forfeiture
Act of 1984, Pub. L. No. 98-473, 98 Stat. 2040 (codified as
amended at 18 U.S.C. 1961-68 (1988) and 21 U.S.C. 853, 881
(1988)) ("relation back" provision allowing government to seize
assets intended for, or paid to, lawyer as legal fees); the Tax
Reform Act of 1984, Pub. L. No. 98-369, 98 Stat. 494 (codified at
26 U.S.C. 60501 (1988)) (attorneys required to report
identities of clients who pay fees with cash payments in excess
of $10,000); and Money Laundering Control Act of 1986, 100 Stat.
3207-18 (codified as amended at 18 U.S.C. 1956-57 (1988))
(criminalizing certain monetary transactions involving knowing
use of funds derived from an illicit source).
Prosecutors generally subpoena attorneys under these new laws
to elicit evidence with respect to fee arrangements and client
identity. See, e.g., In re Grand Jury Subpoena for Attorney ___ ____ _________________________________________
Representing Criminal Defendant Reyes-Requena, 913 F.2d 1118 (5th _____________________________________________
Cir. 1990) (benefactor payments), cert. denied, 111 S. Ct. 1581 ____________
(1991); In re Grand Jury Subpoenas (Anderson), 906 F.2d 1485 ________________________________________
(10th Cir. 1990) (same); In re Grand Jury Subpoena Served Upon _______________________________________
Doe (Slotnick), 781 F.2d 238 (2d Cir. 1985) (same), cert. denied _______________ ____________
sub nom. Roe v. United States, 475 U.S. 1108 (1986). ________ ___ _____________
-4-
2.161(a) (1985).2 In addition, the American Bar Association
(the "ABA") adopted an amendment to its Model Rules of
Professional Conduct creating an ethical prohibition against
subpoenaing a lawyer/witness without a showing of need, an
adversary hearing, and prior judicial approval. See Model Rules ___
of Professional Conduct Rule 3.8(f), reprinted in 6 Laws. Man. on ____________
Prof. Conduct (ABA/BNA) 25, 26 (Feb. 28, 1990). The instances of
federal prosecutors subpoenaing attorneys to compel evidence
regarding theirclients have, nevertheless, continuedto increase.3
____________________
2 The guidelines require federal prosecutors to obtain the
approval of the Assistant Attorney General in charge of the
Criminal Division prior to issuing a subpoena on counsel. Before
approving a subpoena to an attorney, the Assistant Attorney
General must find that the information is necessary for an
investigation or prosecution, unavailable from other sources, not
protected by privilege, that the subpoena is narrowly drawn, and
that the need for the information outweighs any potential adverse
effects on the attorney-client relationship. Id. __
3 In the first year that the Department of Justice Guidelines
were in effect, July 18, 1985 to July 31, 1986, the Department
approved 411 attorney subpoenas, an average of 33 per month. In
the period from March 1987 through October 1987, the Department
rejected only ten requests for attorney subpoenas, slightly more
than one per month. Max D. Stern & David Hoffman, Privileged __________
Informers: The Attorney Subpoena Problem and a Proposal for _________________________________________________________________
Reform, U. Pa. L. Rev. 1783, 1818 n.176 (1988) (citing Justice ______
Department statistics). In addition, according to Department of
Justice statistics, from October 1, 1987 through September 30,
1988, the Department received 363 requests from federal
prosecutors to subpoena 523 attorneys, of which 278 subpoenas
were for grand jury proceedings and 85 for trial. From October
1, 1988 through September 30, 1989, the Department received 410
requests from federal prosecutors to subpoena 649 attorneys, of
which 321 subpoenas were for grand jury proceedings and 89 for
trial. Exercise of Federal Prosecutorial Authority in a Changing _________________________________________________________
Legal Environment, 1990: Hearing Before the Subcomm. on _________________________________________________________________
Government Information, Justice and Agriculture, of the House _________________________________________________________________
Comm. on Government Operations, 101st Cong., 2d Sess. 408 (1990) ______________________________
(Appendix 2), cited in Andrea F. McKenna, A Prosecutor's _________ _______________
Reconsideration of Rule 3.10, 53 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 489, 491 n.5 _____________________________
(1992). See also United States v. Klubock, 832 F.2d 649, 658 ________ _____________ _______
-5-
II. The Present Litigation II. The Present Litigation ______________________
In January 1984, the Rhode Island Supreme Court
established the Committee to Study the Rules of Professional
Conduct (the "Rules Committee") to study and provide
recommendations regarding whether Rhode Island should adopt the
ABA's Model Rules of Professional Conduct. In February 1987, the
Rules Committee published a list of proposed rules and solicited
comment from all members of the Rhode Island Bar. The Rhode
Island Supreme Court later held a public hearing and received
additional comments on the proposed rules. On November 1, 1988,
the Rhode Island Supreme Court adopted the proposed Rules of
Professional Conduct as an amendment to Rhode Island Supreme
Court Rule 47. Among the rules adopted was Rule 3.8(f), which
provides:
Rule 3.8. Special Responsibilities of a Rule 3.8. Special Responsibilities of a
Prosecutor. The prosecutor in a criminal Prosecutor.
case shall:
* * *
(f) not, without prior judicial
approval, subpoena a lawyer for the
purpose of compelling the lawyer to
provide evidence concerning a person who
is or was represented by the lawyer when
such evidence was obtained as a result of
the attorney-client relationship.
On April 20, 1989, the United States District Court for Rhode
Island issued an order incorporating the Rhode Island Rules of
____________________
(1st Cir. 1986) (noting that, in the District of Massachusetts
alone, from 50 to 100 attorney subpoenas per year were served by
federal prosecutors from 1983 to 1986), vacated, 832 F.2d 664 _______
(1st Cir. 1987) (en banc by an equally divided court).
-6-
Professional Conduct, including Rule 3.8(f), into its local rules
(federal rule hereinafter referred to as "Local Rule 3.8(f)").4
On August 2, 1991, the United States Attorney for Rhode
Island petitioned the Rhode Island Supreme Court requesting that
the court amend the state rule to waive its application to
federal prosecutors practicing before Rhode Island's federal
courts. The state court invited briefs from the United States
Attorney and interested members of the Rhode Island Bar and,
after a hearing, denied the petition to amend. The United States
Attorney then wrote to the United States District Court for Rhode
Island requesting that it exempt federal prosecutors from Local
Rule 3.8(f). When the district court denied that request, the
United States Attorney petitioned this court for a writ of
mandamus requiring the district court to exempt federal
prosecutors from the local rule. We dismissed the petition,
stating that "the proper method for mounting a facial challenge
to the validity of [Local] Rule 3.8(f) . . . is through an action
for declaratory and/or injunctive relief filed in the district
____________________
4 Several states, in addition to Rhode Island, adopted
variations of the ABA's Model Rule. See, e.g., Mass. Sup. Jud. ___ ____
Ct. Rule 3:08, PF 15 (adopted by United States District Court for
Massachusetts), Tenn. Ct. C.P.R. & DR 7-103(C); N.H. R.P.C. 4.5;
Va. Sup. Ct. R. 3A:12(a) (adopted as procedural rather than
ethical rule); and Pa. Rule of Prof. Conduct 3:10. New York,
Illinois and the District of Columbia considered and rejected the
rule. See 6 Laws. Man. on Prof. Conduct (ABA/BNA) 28, 29, 53, ___
55, 172, 175. Pennsylvania's rule, which pertained only to grand
jury subpoenas, was struck down by the United States Court of
Appeals for the Third Circuit as beyond the court's rule-making
power. Baylson v. Disciplinary Board of the Supreme Court of _______ _____________________________________________
Pennsylvania, 975 F.2d 102 (3d Cir. 1992), cert. denied, 113 S. ____________ ____________
Ct. 1578 (1993).
-7-
court."
The United States Attorney, and two of his assistants
(the "plaintiffs"), then commenced the instant action against the
United States District Court for Rhode Island and its sitting
judges (collectively, the "federal defendants"), the Rhode Island
Supreme Court and its sitting justices, and Rhode Island's Chief
Disciplinary Counsel (collectively, the "state defendants"),
seeking declaratory and injunctive relief to prevent the
defendants from enforcing the state or federal versions of Rule
3.8(f) against federal prosecutors practicing in Rhode Island's
federal courts.5
Upon cross motions for summary judgment, the district
court struck down Local Rule 3.8(f) as applied to grand jury
subpoenas but upheld the rule as applied to trial subpoenas. The
district court 1) granted plaintiffs' motion for summary judgment
in part, holding Local Rule 3.8(f) invalid as applied to grand
jury subpoenas because it exceeds the federal district court's
limited rule-making power; 2) held that the state version of Rule
3.8(f) cannot be applied to federal prosecutors at the grand jury
stage without violating the Supremacy Clause of the United States
Constitution; and 3) granted the federal defendants' motion for
summary judgment in part, holding Local Rule 3.8(f) as applied to
trial subpoenas within the district court's rule-making
authority. Almond v. U.S. Dist. Court for Dist. of R.I., 852 F. ______ ___________________________________
____________________
5 The case was originally brought in the United States District
Court for Rhode Island, and subsequently transferred to the
United States District Court for New Hampshire.
-8-
Supp. 78 (D.N.H. 1994). These cross-appeals followed.
-9-
STANDARD OF REVIEW STANDARD OF REVIEW
The material facts are undisputed. We review de novo __ ____
the district court's rulings of law made in connection with a
summary judgment motion. See LeBlanc v. Great Am. Ins. Co., 6 ___ _______ ___________________
F.3d 836, 841 (1st Cir. 1993), cert. denied, __ U.S. __, 114 S. ____________
Ct. 1398, 128 L.Ed.2d 72 (1994).
DISCUSSION DISCUSSION
We addressed the nearly identical issues presented in
this case previously in United States v. Klubock, 832 F.2d 649, _____________ _______
653-54 (1st Cir. 1986) ("Klubock I"), vacated, 832 F.2d 664 (1st _________ _______
Cir. 1987) (en banc by an equally divided court) ("Klubock II"). __________
In Klubock I, we held that the United States District Court for _________
Massachusetts has the power to adopt an ethical rule ("PF 15")
similar to the Rhode Island rule at issue in this case. The
original panel opinion in Klubock I was withdrawn, however, when _________
we accepted a petition for rehearing en banc. Upon rehearing en __ ____ __
banc, the full court split three-to-three, therefore affirming, ____
by an equally divided court, the district court decision
upholding the ethical rule in question. United States v. ______________
Klubock, 832 F.2d 664 (1st Cir. 1987), aff'g by equally divided _______ _________________________
court, 639 F. Supp. 117 (D.Mass. 1986).6 Neither Klubock I nor _____ _________
Klubock II are controlling precedent, although the reasoning of __________
both decisions remains of potential persuasive authority. See ___
Trans World Airlines v. Hardison, 432 U.S. 63, 73 n.8 (1977). ____________________ ________
____________________
6 For a discussion of how PF 15 has fared in Massachusetts, see ___
generally David Hoffman et al., Attorney Subpoenas and _________ _________________________
Massachusetts Rule PF 15, 95 Mass. L. Rev. (Summer 1989). ________________________
-10-
See also Charles A. Wright, The Law of Federal Courts 758 (4th ________ __________________________
ed. 1983).
In Klubock I, we recognized the ethical and legal __________
implications of prosecutors subpoenaing attorneys for the purpose
of compelling evidence concerning their clients. We noted that
the serving of a grand jury subpoena on an attorney to compel
evidence concerning a client may: 1) chill the relationship
between lawyer and client; 2) create an immediate conflict of
interest for the attorney/witness; 3) divert the attorney's time
and resources away from his client; 4) discourage attorneys from
providing representation in controversial criminal cases; and 5)
force attorneys to withdraw as counsel because of ethical rules
prohibiting an attorney from testifying against his client.7 We
also noted the potential for abusive use of the attorney-
subpoena. Klubock I, 832 F.2d at 653-54. See also In re Grand _________ ________ ___________
Jury Matters (Hodes and Gordon), 593 F. Supp. 103, 106 (D.N.H.) ________________________________
(quashing subpoenas and characterizing actions of U.S. Attorney
in serving subpoenas on counsel as "without doubt harassing"),
aff'd, 751 F.2d 13 (1st Cir. 1984). Other courts have _____
acknowledged similar concerns. See, e.g., In re Special Grand ___ ____ ____________________
Jury No. 81-1, 676 F.2d 1005, 1009 (4th Cir. 1982) (issuance of _____________
____________________
7 See, e.g., Model Code of Professional Responsibility DR 5- ___ ____
101(B), DR 5-102 (1980); Model Rules of Professional Conduct Rule
3.7(a) (1987) (prohibiting lawyer from acting as both advocate
and witness whenever "the lawyer is likely to be a necessary
witness"). See also United States v. Diozzi, 807 F.2d 10, 12-13 ________ _____________ ______
(1st Cir. 1986) ("[A]ttorneys [can]not serve the dual roles of
defense counsel and sworn government witnesses in the same
trial.").
-11-
subpoena may cause client to distrust attorney and terminate
relationship), rev'd on other grounds, 697 F.2d 112 (4th Cir. ________________________
1982) (en banc).8
The central question on appeal in this case is whether
the United States District Court for Rhode Island has the power
to adopt a local rule that requires a federal prosecutor, at
either the grand jury or trial stage, to obtain judicial approval
before serving a subpoena on counsel to compel evidence
concerning a client. We conclude that the federal district court
has the power to adopt such a rule.
I. The District Court's Rule-Making Authority I. The District Court's Rule-Making Authority __________________________________________
The authority of the United States District Courts to
adopt or promulgate rules emanates from three sources. First,
Congress has vested the Supreme Court with the authority to
____________________
8 In United States v. Perry, 857 F.2d 1346, 1347 (9th Cir. _____________ _____
1988), the Ninth Circuit noted that the government's increasing
use of grand jury subpoenas on a target's counsel
has been almost universally criticized by
courts, commentators and the defense bar
because it is viewed as a tool of
prosecutorial abuse and as an unethical
tactical device US Attorneys employ to go
on a "fishing expedition" with legal
counsel without first pursuing
alternative avenues to get the
information. Many feel, and with some
justification, that whatever benefit the
government derives from this practice
comes at the direct expense of the
attorney-client relationship. Among the
perceived costs, for example, are the
potential loss of a client's choice of
counsel should the latter be compelled to
testify at the trial and the chilling
effect upon the client's trust in his
counsel's loyalty.
-12-
prescribe rules of practice and procedure for the federal courts.
28 U.S.C. 2072(a). Pursuant to that authority, the Supreme
Court has adopted Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 57 ("Rule
57"), which provides that each district court may from time to
time make or amend rules governing its practice, provided the
rules are consistent with the Federal Rules of Criminal
Procedure.9 See also Fed. R. Civ. P. 83 (civil analogue). _________
Second, Congress has vested federal district and circuit courts
with the independent authority to prescribe local rules of
practice consistent with Acts of Congress and the rules of
practice and procedure promulgated by the Supreme Court. 28
U.S.C. 2071(a).10 Finally, the Supreme Court has long
____________________
9 Rule 57 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure provides in
pertinent part:
Each district court by action of a
majority of the judges thereof may from
time to time, after giving appropriate
public notice and an opportunity to
comment, make and amend rules governing
its practice not inconsistent with these
rules. . . . In all cases not provided
for by rule, the district judges and
magistrate judges may regulate their
practice in any manner not inconsistent
with these rules or those of the district
in which they act.
10 28 U.S.C. 2071(a) states:
The Supreme Court and all courts
established by Act of Congress may from
time to time prescribe rules for the __________________________
conduct of their business. Such rules ___________________________
shall be consistent with Acts of Congress
and rules of practice and procedure
prescribed by the Supreme Court.
(emphasis added).
-13-
recognized that district courts have certain inherent rule-making
powers arising from the nature of the judicial process. See ___
Chambers v. NASCO, Inc., 501 U.S. 32, 43 (1991); Link v. Wabash ________ ___________ ____ ______
Railroad Co., 370 U.S. 626 (1962); United States v. Hudson, 11 _____________ _____________ ______
U.S. (7 Cranch) 32, 34, 3 L.Ed. 259 (1812) ("Certain implied
powers must necessarily result to our Courts of justice from the
nature of their institution.").
Consistent with these principles, the Supreme Court has
upheld the authority of district courts to promulgate local rules
unless 1) the rule conflicts with an Act of Congress; 2) the rule
conflicts with the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure; 3) the
rule is constitutionally infirm; or 4) the subject matter
governed by the rule is not within the power of the district
court to regulate. See Frazier v. Heebe, 482 U.S. 641, 654 ___ _______ _____
(1986) (Rehnquist, C.J., dissenting) (citing Colgrove v. Battin, ________ ______
413 U.S. 149, 159-60, 162-64 (1973); Miner v. Atlass, 363 U.S. _____ ______
641, 651-52 (1960); Story v. Livingston, 13 Pet. 359, 368 _____ __________
(1839)). In addition, the Supreme Court has struck down a local
rule which it deemed "unnecessary and irrational." Id. at 646 __
(majority opinion). It follows that Local Rules are
presumptively valid unless they contravene one of the five
principles mentioned above.
Plaintiffs argue that Local Rule 3.8(f) is invalid, as
applied to grand jury subpoenas, because it regulates a subject
matter which is beyond the rule-making authority of the district
court. In addition, plaintiffs contend that the Rule is invalid,
-14-
both as applied to grand jury and trial subpoenas, because it
conflicts with Rules 17 and 57 of the Federal Rules of Criminal
Procedure. We begin by addressing Local Rule 3.8(f) as it
applies to grand jury subpoenas.
Other than our two opinions in Klubock, the Third _______
Circuit is the only federal appeals court to address whether a
federal district court has the power to adopt a local ethical
rule providing for pre-service, judicial screening of attorney-
subpoenas. In Baylson v. Disciplinary Board of the Supreme Court _______ _______________________________________
of Pennsylvania, 975 F.2d 102 (3d Cir. 1992), cert. denied, 113 _______________ _____________
S. Ct. 1578 (1993), the Third Circuit struck down a local rule
similar to the one in this case on the grounds that it conflicted
with both Rules 17 and 57 of the Federal Rules of Criminal
Procedure. The court did not address the question, however, of
whether the local rule regulates a subject matter beyond the
district court's rule-making authority. It is upon this latter
ground that the district court in this case struck down Local
Rule 3.8(f) as applied to grand jury subpoenas. We address this
issue first.
II. Power of District Court to Regulate Grand Jury Subpoenas II. Power of District Court to Regulate Grand Jury Subpoenas ________________________________________________________
A federal court has the "inherent power . . . to
control admission to its bar and to discipline attorneys who
appear before it." Chambers, 501 U.S. at 43 (citing Ex parte ________ ________
Burr, 9 Wheat. 529, 531 (1824)). See also Culebras Enterprises ____ ________ ____________________
Corp. v. Rivera-R os, 846 F.2d 94, 97 (1st Cir. 1988) ("[i]t is _____ ___________
well settled in this circuit that the district court has the duty
-15-
and responsibility to supervise the conduct of attorneys who
appear before it") (citations omitted); United States v. Claros, _____________ ______
17 F.3d 1041, 1046-47 (7th Cir. 1994); Eash v. Riggins Trucking ____ ________________
Inc., 757 F.2d 557, 569 (3d Cir. 1985). The Supreme Court has ____
implied that the power to regulate the conduct of attorneys
derives also from statutory authority. See Frazier, 482 U.S. at ___ _______
645 (district court has "discretion to adopt local rules that are
necessary to carry out the conduct of its business [and this
authority] includes the regulation of admissions to its own bar")
(citing 28 U.S.C. 1654, 2071; Fed. R. Civ. P. 83). See also _________
Greer's Refuse Serv., Inc. v. Browning-Ferris Indus., 843 F.2d ___________________________ ______________________
443, 446 (11th Cir. 1988) ("federal courts have clear statutory
authority to promulgate rules governing the admission and conduct
of the attorneys who practice before them").
Whether considered statutory or inherent in derivation,
we have little difficulty concluding that the greater power of
disbarring attorneys for unethical behavior necessarily includes
the lesser power of erecting reasonable prophylactic rules to
regulate perceived abuses by attorneys appearing before the
court. Cf. Chambers, 501 U.S. at 45 (power to dismiss lawsuit __ ________
for conduct abusing judicial process includes the "less severe
sanction" of imposing attorney's fees). The question remains,
however, whether, considering the special role assigned the grand
jury in our justice system, Local Rule 3.8(f) regulates a subject
matter beyond the district court's rule-making authority.
A. The Special Role of the Grand Jury A. The Special Role of the Grand Jury __________________________________
-16-
The grand jury occupies a unique place in our justice
system. It is not assigned by the Constitution to any of the
three branches of government, and therefore acts independently of
each. The Supreme Court has explained: "[T]he whole theory of
the [grand jury's] function is that it belongs to no branch of
the institutional government, serving as a kind of buffer or
referee between the Government and the people." United States v. _____________
Williams, __ U.S. __, 112 S. Ct. 1735, 1742 (1992). The grand ________
jury's "specialness" is manifested in five ways pertinent to this
case: 1) its independence from the court's supervision; 2) its
broad investigative powers; 3) the presumption of validity
accorded its subpoenas; 4) the secrecy of its proceedings; and 5)
its general freedom from procedural detours and delays. See id. ___ __
(citations omitted); United States v. R. Enterprises, 498 U.S. _____________ ______________
292, 298-301 (1991) (citations omitted).
Plaintiffs maintain that Local Rule 3.8(f)
impermissibly interferes with these five special attributes of
the grand jury. They contend that Local Rule 3.8(f), therefore,
regulates a subject matter beyond the district court's rule-
making authority because it "directly contravenes the central
principles underlying the essential role and function of the
grand jury in the federal criminal justice system." The district
court agreed, holding that "the district court cannot enforce
Local Rule 3.8(f) because it assumes a power that the court does
not have -- the power to fundamentally alter the historic
relationship between the grand jury and its constituting court."
-17-
Almond, 852 F. Supp. at 86 (citing Williams, 112 S. Ct. at 1744). ______ ________
We disagree with the district court for three reasons.
First, Local Rule 3.8(f) is a prophylactic rule aimed at, and
principally affecting, prosecutors, not the grand jury. As such, ___________
the Rule regulates the conduct of attorneys appearing before the
court -- a power well within the limits of a federal district
court's rule-making authority -- and not the grand jury per se. ___ __
Second, we think the district court's reliance on Williams is ________
misplaced. Finally, any incidental effect the Rule has on the
grand jury is minimal, and outweighed by the important interests
served by the rule.
B. Effect of Local Rule on Grand Jury Functions B. Effect of Local Rule on Grand Jury Functions ____________________________________________
Local Rule 3.8(f) does not impede the grand jury's
independence because it does not affect subpoenas sought by the
grand jury acting independently. The plain language of the Rule
demonstrates that it applies to "[t]he prosecutor in a criminal
case." As we pointed out in Klubock I, concerning a virtually _________
identical ethical rule:
PF 15 is not aimed at grand jury action. __________
It deals solely with prosecutorial
conduct in the prosecutor's capacity as a
member of the bar. If, in fact, a grand
jury acting independently of any
prosecutorial influence issues a subpoena
against an attorney/witness, the
attorney/witness must honor it, or move
to quash the subpoena in an appropriate
manner. Such independent action by a
grand jury has no relevance to PF 15
because none of the ethical concerns
previously mentioned are implicated.
-18-
Klubock I, 832 F.2d at 658. The distinction is critical because, _________
although the potential damage to the attorney-client relationship
exists regardless of who seeks the subpoena, the attorney-to-
attorney ethical concerns that the Rule was designed to mitigate _______
are not implicated when the grand jury, acting independently,
seeks to subpoena counsel.11 The Rule, as written, acts only
as a prophylactic aimed at perceived deleterious action by one
litigating attorney against opposing counsel.
Nor does the Rule affect the grand jury's broad
investigative powers -- often described as the grand jury's
"right to every man's evidence." Branzburg v. Hayes, 408 U.S. _________ _____
665, 688 (1972). First and foremost, the Rule makes no change in
substantive law. It merely authorizes district courts to reject
a prosecutor's attorney-subpoena application for the traditional
reasons justifying the quashing of a subpoena -- that is, the
subpoena request would be denied if the evidence sought is
protected by a constitutional, common-law, or statutory
privilege, or, the court determines that compliance with the
subpoena would be "unreasonable or oppressive." See id. ___ __
(citations omitted); In re Grand Jury Matters, 751 F.2d at 17-18 ________________________
____________________
11 We have noted that, although they are issued under the
district court's name and for the grand jury, "[t]hese subpoenas
are 'in fact almost universally instrumentalities of the United
States Attorney's office or some other department of the
executive branch.'" In re Grand Jury Matters, 751 F.2d at 16 __________________________
(quoting In re Grand Jury Proceedings (Schofield), 486 F.2d 85, _________________________________________
90 (3d Cir. 1973)). See also In re Grand Jury Subpoena: Subpoena ________ ___________________________________
Duces Tecum, 829 F.2d 1291, 1296-97 (4th Cir. 1987). ___________
-19-
(Fed. R. Crim. P. 17(c)).12 Local Rule 3.8(f) does not keep
any evidence from reaching the grand jury which would not
potentially have been kept from it anyway. Therefore, it does
not disturb the grand jury's broad investigative powers.13
In effect, Local Rule 3.8(f) merely changes the timing
with respect to motions to quash in recognition of the fact that
service itself of an attorney-subpoena seeking to compel evidence
concerning a client may cause irreparable damage to the attorney-
client relationship. See Klubock I, 832 F.2d at 653 ("The ___ _________
serving of a subpoena under such circumstances will immediately
drive a chilling wedge between the attorney/witness and his
client."). From the moment that the subpoena is served on
counsel, until the issue of its validity is resolved, the client
resides in a state of suspended animation, not knowing whether
his attorney will testify against him and perhaps be required to
withdraw his representation. The uncertainty is heightened by
____________________
12 To the extent that the Comment to Local Rule 3.8(f), see
Appendix A, suggests a broader basis for rejecting a subpoena
application, we point out that the Comment cannot substantively
change the text of the Rule. Indeed, the Rhode Island Rules of
Professional Conduct provide that the "Comments do not add
obligations to the Rules but provide guidance for practicing in
compliance with the Rules." The Rhode Island Supreme Court Rules
also provide that "the Comments are intended for interpretation,
but the text of each Rule is authoritative." Rhode Island
Supreme Court Rule 47. Moreover, federal district courts cannot
effect substantive changes in the law through local rulemaking.
We presume that district court judges will apply Local Rule
3.8(f) consistently with both its text and applicable law.
Plaintiffs' speculative arguments with respect to how particular
judges might apply the Comment to the Rule are, at this point,
irrelevant.
13 For similar reasons, Local Rule 3.8(f) does not affect the
presumed validity of grand jury subpoenas.
-20-
the fact that the common law of attorney-client privilege is
still evolving to address the concerns implicated by new federal
laws relating to client identity and fee arrangements. Compare _______
United States v. Gertner, 1995 WL 32020 (D.Mass.) (in case of _____________ _______
first impression in this circuit, holding that identification of
attorney's client, as required by 26 U.S.C. 6050I, is protected
from disclosure by attorney-client privilege) with United States ____ _____________
v. Goldberger & Dubin, P.C., 935 F.2d 501, 505 (2d Cir. 1991) _________________________
(holding that the information is not protected by attorney-client
privilege). In addition, service of a subpoena opens a second
front which counsel must defend with her time and resources, thus
diverting both from the client. That the defense counsel's
adversary can bring about these consequences raises manifest _________
ethical concerns, properly addressed by a rule directed at
regulating the attorney-to-attorney relationship.
We also reject plaintiffs' argument that Local Rule
3.8(f) contravenes the historic "secrecy" of grand jury
investigations. Nothing in the text of the Rule prohibits the
filing of attorney-subpoena applications to the court under seal
or in camera. Nor does the Rule prohibit the court from holding __________
an ex parte, in camera hearing. District courts routinely use in __ _____ _________ __
camera procedures to maintain grand jury secrecy in the context ______
of post-service motions to quash. See R. Enterprises, Inc., 498 ___ ____________________
U.S. at 302. Moreover, because the grounds upon which a district
court may reject an attorney-subpoena application mirror those
for quashing a subpoena, the prosecutor will be required to
-21-
divulge no more information with respect to the grand jury's
investigation than it would in responding to a motion to quash.14
Finally, there is nothing in the text of Local Rule
3.8(f) which would subject the grand jury to unusual procedural
delays or detours. As noted, the Rule only affects subpoenas
sought by prosecutors for use at the grand jury proceeding. It
is not applicable to subpoenas sought by a grand jury acting
independently. It therefore will not usually have any delaying
effect on the grand jury's investigation. Furthermore, any
procedural delay or detour which does result would be minimal --
presumably no greater than that caused by a traditional motion to
quash a subpoena issued at the grand jury stage. As explained
below, we think any minimal delay is outweighed by the benefits
of the Rule.
We made many of these points in Klubock I. In striking _________
down the ethical rule in this case, however, the district court
reasoned that the Supreme Court's recent decision in Williams, ________
112 S. Ct. 1735, negates any persuasive authority Klubock I has __________
with respect to grand jury subpoenas.
C. United States v. Williams C. United States v. Williams _________________________
____________________
14 Plaintiffs argue that the secrecy of grand jury proceedings
will be compromised because the Comment to Rule 3.8(f) states
that judicial approval should be granted or denied after an
"adversarial hearing." As we have noted, the Comment to the Rule
is merely a non-binding guideline. Supra n.12. District court _____
judges will determine, based on their experience and professional
judgment, the best way to comply with the Rule and maintain grand
jury secrecy. In some cases an in camera adversarial hearing __________
might be appropriate and in others it might not. This, of
course, is the kind of decision district court judges routinely
make in the exercise of their discretion.
-22-
Williams held that a district court does not have the ________
power to dismiss an otherwise valid indictment because the
government failed to disclose substantial exculpatory evidence to
the grand jury. In doing so, the Court announced the following
principles, upon which the district court relied in striking down
Local Rule 3.8(f) as applied to grand jury subpoenas.
These authorities suggest that any
power federal courts may have to fashion,
on their own initiative, rules of grand
jury procedure is a very limited one, not
remotely comparable to the power they
maintain over their own proceedings. It __
certainly would not permit judicial _________________________________________
reshaping of the grand jury institution, _________________________________________
substantially altering the traditional _________________________________________
relationships between the prosecutor, the _________________________________________
constituting court, and the grand jury _________________________________________
itself. ______
Williams, 112 S. Ct. at 1744 (citations omitted) (emphasis ________
added). Citing the history of the grand jury, both in England
and the United States, the Williams Court explained that the ________
grand jury sits in order to asses whether there is an adequate
basis for bringing a criminal charge, rather than to determine
guilt or innocence. Therefore, "requiring the prosecutor to
present exculpatory evidence as well as inculpatory evidence
would alter the grand jury's historical role, transforming it __________________________________________________________
from an accusatory to an adjudicatory body." Id. (emphasis ______________________________________________ __
added).
It can hardly be said that Local Rule 3.8(f) would
"alter the grand jury's historic role" in such a fundamental
fashion. It certainly does not transform the grand jury from an
accusatory to an adjudicatory body. Indeed, it has no effect
-23-
whatsoever on the grand jury's accusatory role. Nor does it
alter the traditional relationships between prosecutor, court,
and grand jury. As we have noted, regulation of attorney conduct
is a traditional role for the court -- one for which it is
particularly well positioned and suited, and one which has never
been considered within the purview of the grand jury. Moreover,
the Rule has no effect on the evidence ultimately presented by
the government. It merely allows the court to determine, before
an attorney-subpoena is served, and the damage to the attorney-
client relationship caused, whether grounds exist which would
render the subpoena subject to an order to quash. Unlike the
situation in Williams, Local Rule 3.8(f) does not affect the ________
traditional equation upon which the grand jury deliberates to
assess whether there is an adequate basis for bringing criminal
charges.
We think Williams is clearly distinguishable on the ________
above grounds alone. We note in addition, however, that Williams ________
involved the use of a federal court's "supervisory power" to
dismiss an indictment, while this case involves a district _______
court's power merely to regulate the conduct of attorneys
appearing before it. The supervisory power derives from the need
for courts "to implement a remedy for violation of recognized
rights, to preserve judicial integrity by ensuring that a
conviction rests on appropriate considerations validly before the
jury, and . . . to deter illegal conduct." United States v. _____________
Hastings, 461 U.S. 499, 505 (1982) (citations omitted). In ________
-24-
contrast, the power of a court to regulate the conduct of
attorneys appearing before it derives not from a need to remedy
or deter violations of defendants' rights, but from the
professional relationship between the court and attorneys
appearing before it. See Theard v. United States, 354 U.S. 278, ___ ______ _____________
281 (1957) ("The court's control over a lawyer's professional
life derives from his relation to the responsibilities of a
court."); Goldfarb v. Virginia State Bar, 421 U.S. 773, 792 ________ ___________________
(1975) ("The interests of the States in regulating lawyers is
especially great since lawyers are essential to the primary
governmental function of administering justice, and have
historically been 'officers of the courts.'"). Thus, the source
and purpose of the two powers distinguishes them.
The nature and extent of the power exercised also
differ. When a federal court uses its supervisory power to
dismiss an indictment it directly encroaches upon the fundamental
role of the grand jury. That power is appropriately reserved,
therefore, for extremely limited circumstances. See Bank of Nova ___ ____________
Scotia v. U.S., 487 U.S. 250, 263 (1988) ("District Court had no ______ ____
authority to dismiss the indictment on the basis of prosecutorial
misconduct absent a finding that petitioners were prejudiced by
such misconduct"). In contrast, the power of a court to regulate
the conduct of attorneys appearing before it is traditionally
invoked only to impose a sanction, monetary or otherwise, on the
offending party, or to recommend disciplinary proceedings. See, ___
e.g., United States v. Claros, 17 F.3d 1041, 1046-47 (7th Cir. ____ _____________ ______
-25-
1994); Harlan v. Lewis, 982 F.2d 1255, 1259-60 (8th Cir. 1993); ______ _____
Zambrano v. City of Tustin, 885 F.2d 1473, 1477-80 (9th Cir. ________ _______________
1989). It stands to reason that the more severe the sanction,
the more extensive the source of power needed to impose it, and
the more closely that power must be circumscribed. It follows
that the converse is also true. See Chambers, 501 U.S. at 45. ___ ________
For these reasons, we conclude that Williams is not ________
dispositive of the distinct issues in this case. Nor do we think
-26-
that it vitiates the persuasive authority of our reasoning in
Klubock I. _________
D. The Benefits of Local Rule 3.8(f) D. The Benefits of Local Rule 3.8(f) _________________________________
In many ways, the attorney-client relationship is the
heart of our adversarial system of justice. This is particularly
true in criminal cases. See generally Monroe H. Freedman, ______________
Understanding Lawyers' Ethics 16 ("the lawyer is the client's ______________________________
'champion against a hostile world' -- the client's zealous
advocate against the government itself"). Clients rely
extensively on their attorneys' judgment, advice, and
professional competence. Moreover, as legal rules and
obligations become more complex, clients are forced to rely
increasingly on their attorneys, thus elevating the importance of
the attorney-client relationship.
The relationship between attorney and client is often
an ongoing one, built upon years of professional and social
interaction. On other occasions it arises out of a single
incident. Sometimes the client and attorney have never met
before. Although the dynamics of these relationships differ, the
fundamental responsibilities of attorney to client are the same.
Attorneys must diligently and competently represent their
clients' interests, keep their clients' confidences, and not
place themselves in situations where their interests conflict
with those of their clients.15 To fulfill their
____________________
15 See, e.g., Model Rules of Professional Conduct Rule 1.1 ("A ___ ____
lawyer shall provide competent representation[, which] requires
the legal knowledge, skill, thoroughness and preparation
-27-
responsibilities, attorneys need information from their clients.
It is necessary to the very foundation of our adversarial system
of justice that clients feel secure in divulging to their
attorneys the facts in their possession, including those that
clients think might be incriminating. See generally 1 McCormack ______________ _________
on Evidence 87, at 316-17 (4th ed. 1992) (describing the ____________
importance of attorney loyalty to the client); Stern & Hoffman,
supra, at 1826-27 (stressing the need for open communication _____
between attorney and client).
A body of substantive law and ethical rules has evolved
over the years with the purpose of creating an atmosphere in
which free and unfettered communication between attorney and
client is, to the greatest extent, encouraged. See supra n.15. ___ _____
We are concerned with the systemic nature of the attorney-client
relationship because of the dynamic inherent in that relationship
-- the client generally knows the facts and the lawyer generally
knows the law. While the law cannot "legislate" a trusting and
open attorney-client relationship, it can encourage it, or, at
least, seek to mitigate those situations which might discourage
____________________
reasonably necessary for the representation."); Rule 1.3 ("A
lawyer shall act with reasonable diligence and promptness in
representing a client."); Rule 1.4(a) (duty to "keep a client
reasonably informed about the status of a matter"); Rule 1.6
(general rule of confidentiality); Rule 1.7 (general rule
regarding conflicts of interest); Rule 1.8(b) ("A lawyer shall
not use confidences to the client's disadvantage"); Rule 1.9(b)
(same for former client). Many of these ethical rules codify
similar requirements contained in contract and agency law. See ___
Stephen Gillers, What We Talked About When We Talked About _______________________________________________
Ethics: A Critical View of the Model Rules, 46 Ohio St. L.J. 243, __________________________________________
247-48 (1985) (collecting cases).
-28-
it.
This was precisely the rationale underlying the Supreme
Court's decision in Hickman v. Taylor, 329 U.S. 495, 511 (1947), _______ ______
in which the Court held that attorney work product is privileged.
The Court emphasized the need for the attorney-client
relationship to be "free from unnecessary intrusion by opposing
parties and their counsel" and noted that introducing attorney
work product into evidence would lead to "[i]nefficiency,
unfairness and sharp practices . . . in the giving of legal
advice and in the preparation of cases for trial." The Court
concluded: "The effect on the legal profession would be
demoralizing. And the interests of the causes of justice would
be poorly served." Id. __
Local Rule 3.8(f) effectively enables the district
court judge to resolve issues with respect to the attorney-
subpoena prior to service, in a manner similar to that in a
motion to quash hearing, therefore avoiding, in appropriate
cases, the detrimental effects to the attorney-client
relationship caused by service of a prosecutorial subpoena upon
the attorney. We think that Local Rule 3.8(f) serves similar
interests as those noted in Hickman,16 and that its _______
prophylactic nature is consistent with the Supreme Court's
recognition that the district court's supervision over the grand
____________________
16 In contrast to Hickman, of course, the Rule in this case does _______
not create new substantive law with respect to the attorney-
client privilege. Rather, it merely seeks to avoid unnecessary
harm to the attorney-client relationship.
-29-
jury's subpoena power may be "properly exercised . . . to prevent __________
the wrong before it occurs." United States v. Calandra, 414 U.S. __________________________ _____________ ________
338 (1974) (emphasis added).
We also think the district court is in a much better
position than this court to evaluate the need for an ethical rule
regulating the practice of its officers, at both the grand jury ________________________________________
and trial stages.17 As Justice Frankfurter explained in
upholding the power of district courts to promulgate and enforce
rules concerning disbarment of attorneys:
[T]he state judicatures and the federal
judiciary, have autonomous control over
the conduct of their officers, among whom
. . . lawyers are included. The court's ___________
control over a lawyer's professional life _________________________________________
derives from his relation to the _________________________________________
responsibilities of a court. . . . _______________________________
'Membership in the bar is a privilege
burdened with conditions. The appellant
was received into that ancient fellowship
for something more than private gain. He
became an officer of the court, and, like
the court itself, an instrument or agency
to advance the ends of justice.'
Theard, 354 U.S. at 281 (emphasis added) (quoting People ex rel. ______ ______________
Karlin v. Cilkin, 162 N.E. 487, 489 (N.Y. 1928) (Cardozo, J.)) ______ ______
(other citations omitted). The judges of the federal district
court in Rhode Island are in a position to observe the subpoena
practices of attorneys appearing before them. Those judges with
more than a few years on the bench have witnessed the increased
____________________
17 We note that the parties are "before the court" once a
subpoena is issued under the court's seal. See Matter of Certain ___ _________________
Complaints under Investigation, 783 F.2d 1488, 1495 (11th Cir. _______________________________
1986) (noting that when a subpoena bearing the court's seal is
issued by its clerk, it becomes "an instrument of the court's
process"), cert. denied, 477 U.S. 904 (1986). ____________
-30-
use of the attorney subpoena as an investigative tool and have
been called upon to rule on motions to quash. Considering their
acknowledged authority to regulate the conduct of attorneys
appearing before them, and to preserve judicial integrity, we
think their determination that Local Rule 3.8(f) was necessary to
regulate the increased use of the attorney subpoena by federal
prosecutors deserves considerable weight.18
Based on the foregoing considerations, we conclude that
the minimal effect Local Rule 3.8(f) might have on the grand
____________________
18 Plaintiffs argue that the Rule is unnecessary because Justice
Department Guidelines place strict controls on federal
prosecutors seeking to subpoena counsel and, therefore,
adequately protect the attorney-client relationship. Supra. The _____
question in this case, however, is not whether there are other
ways to protect the attorney-client privilege; the question is
whether the district court has the power to adopt this Rule. We _____ ____
also note that the judges of the federal district court in Rhode
Island presumably did not take such a sanguine view of the
Justice Department's ability to police its own. If so, they
would not be alone in this view. After discovering that no
disciplinary action had been taken by the Department of Justice
against ten prosecutors found by federal courts to have engaged
in misconduct, for example, a Congressional Committee recently
observed:
[R]epeated findings of no misconduct, and
the Department's failure to explain its
disagreements with findings of misconduct
by the Courts raises serious questions
regarding what the Department considers
"prosecutorial misconduct . . . within
the meaning of either the Model Code of ______________
Professional Responsibility or the _____________________________
Standards of Conduct in the Department of
Justice."
H.R. Rep. No. 986, 101st Cong., 2d Sess. 23 (1990). See also ________
U.S. v. Hastings, 461 U.S. 499, 522 (1983) (Brennan, J., ____ ________
concurring in part and dissenting in part) (describing the
"futility of relying on Department of Justice disciplinary
proceedings").
-31-
jury's traditional functions is outweighed by the important,
systemic concerns addressed by Local Rule 3.8(f). We therefore
conclude that Local Rule 3.8(f) regulates a subject matter within
the district courts' rule-making authority. We turn now to the
question of whether the Rule is inconsistent with the Federal
Rules of Criminal Procedure.
-32-
III. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure III. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure ___________________________________
In Baylson, the Third Circuit struck down a virtually _______
identical local rule ("Local Rule 3:10") on the grounds that it
was inconsistent with both Rules 17 and 57 of the Federal Rules
of Criminal Procedure and, therefore, beyond the district court's
rule-making authority. The district court in this case rejected
the Baylson court's reasoning and conclusion with respect to _______
Rules 17 and 57. For much the same reasons, we do as well.
A. Rule 1719 A. Rule 17 _______
The Baylson court offered the following reasons for its _______
conclusion that Local Rule 3:10 is inconsistent with Rule 17.
First, the court noted that neither Rule 17 nor any provision in
the federal rules or an Act of Congress "allows for judicial ______
intervention before a subpoena is served." Second, the court
stated that the local rule "impermissibly extends the ministerial
role granted the district courts in subpoena practice." Finally, _______
while conceding that "there may not be a literal conflict
between" the two rules, the court reasoned that the two were
inconsistent "because nothing in Rule 17 grants to the district
court what Rule 3.10 purports to by means of a local rule: the
power to screen grand jury subpoenas prior to service." Id. at _____ __
108 (emphasis added in each quotation).
We reject Baylson's reasoning with respect to Rule 17. _______
It simply does not follow analytically or jurisprudentially that
a local rule is "inconsistent" with a criminal rule of procedure
____________________
19 The full text of Rule 17 is reprinted at Appendix B.
-33-
merely because neither the federal rules nor an Act of Congress
explicitly grant district courts the power to promulgate the
specific local rule. As noted, district courts have the general
power to adopt local rules pursuant to Federal Rule of Criminal
Procedure 57, 28 U.S.C. 2071(a), and their inherent rule-making
authority. It might be argued that neither Rule 57, 2071(a),
nor the court's inherent rule-making power provide the necessary
authority for a district court to regulate this particular _________
subject matter, but this inquiry is entirely separate from
whether the ethical rule is inconsistent with Rule 17. By ____________
premising its consistency analysis on whether a federal rule or
statute provides the specific authority to adopt the local rule,
Baylson turned the proper inquiry on its head -- evaluating the _______
Rule as if local rules are presumptively invalid. This
presumption is wholly unsupported. See, e.g., Colgrove v. ___ ____ ________
Battin, 413 U.S. 149 (1973); Link, 370 U.S. 626 (1962).20 ______ ____
____________________
20 The district court rejected the Baylson court's analysis with _______
respect to Rule 17 for similar reasons.
By focusing on whether Rule 17 "allows"
a district court to intervene in the
subpoena process prior to service, the
Third Circuit essentially held that local
rules cannot authorize pre-service
judicial review where Rule 17 does not
itself authorize this practice. In other
words, the court held that Rule 17's
silence with respect to pre-service
judicial review rendered local rules
authorizing this practice inconsistent
with the federal rule. I reject the
interpretive premise because it too
narrowly circumscribes the district
courts' rulemaking power.
-34-
The proper method for determining whether a local rule
is inconsistent with a federal rule of procedure is to inquire,
first, whether the two rules are textually inconsistent and,
second, whether the local rule subverts the overall purpose of
the federal rule. See Hawes v. Club Ecuestre Comandante, 535 ___ _____ _________________________
F.2d 140, 144 (1st Cir. 1976).
We agree with the district court that the two rules are
not textually inconsistent. There is simply nothing in Rule 17
which prohibits pre-service involvement in the subpoena process
by the district court judge.21 Plaintiffs do not seriously
contest this point but argue, instead, that Local Rule 3.8(f)
contravenes the "underlying policy of Rule 17" to maintain the
historic limits on the court's involvement in the grand jury
subpoena process. Plaintiffs maintain that Rule 17 purposefully
confines the court's role in the subpoena process to
"administrative functions, sanctioning refusals to comply with
subpoenas, and quashing or modifying document subpoenas."
Therefore, the argument goes, Rule 17's failure to address pre-
____________________
Almond, 852 F. Supp. at 84. ______
21 As the district court noted, Local Rule 3.8(f) is concerned
only with the service of subpoenas on attorneys, not the issuance _______
of subpoenas. This is not merely a difference in semantics.
Local Rule 3.8(f) is a prophylactic rule designed to address
certain perceived ethical concerns implicated by the increasing
practice of federal prosecutors subpoenaing opposing counsel to
compel testimony regarding a target client. These ethical
concerns simply are not implicated by the issuance of a subpoena
because, until the attorney is served with the subpoena, the
client has no reason to distrust or feel uncertain about his
attorney's allegiance. See Klubock I, 832 F.2d 649 (noting the ___ _________
same with respect to PF 15).
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service judicial intervention in the subpoena process indicates
an intention that there should be none.
The Supreme Court has indicated that silence in the
federal rules should not be interpreted as a prohibition on local
rule-making authority. In Colgrove, for example, the Court held ________
that a local rule authorizing six-person juries for civil cases
did not conflict with former Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 48,
which provided that "[t]the parties may stipulate that the jury
shall consist of any number less than twelve." The Court
concluded that the two rules were not inconsistent because Rule
48 "'deals only with a stipulation by "[t]he parties." It does _____________
not purport to prevent court rules which provide for civil juries ___________
of reduced size.'" Colgrove, 413 U.S. at 164 (quoting Cooley v. ________ ______
Strickland Transportation Co., 459 F.2d 779, 784 (5th Cir. _______________________________
1972)). See also United States v. Spock, 416 F.2d 165, 180 (1st ________ _____________ _____
Cir. 1969).22 The mere fact that Rule 17 sets forth certain
ways in which the district court is involved in the subpoena
process does not, by negative implication, therefore establish
that the purpose of the rule is to circumscribe judicial _______
intervention in the subpoena process to only those functions
____________________
22 Similarly, in Link, the Court held that the former version of ____
Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 41(b) -- which provided that
"a defendant may move for dismissal of an action" for failure to
prosecute -- did not, by negative implication, prohibit the court
from dismissing an action sua sponte for failure to prosecute. ___________
The Court reasoned that "[n]either the permissive language of the __________
Rule -- which merely authorizes a motion by the defendant -- nor
its policy" indicate that the Rule was intended to "abrogate" the
inherent power of federal courts to dismiss sua sponte for __________
failure to prosecute. Link, 370 U.S. at 630-32 (emphasis added). ____
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specified in the Rule.23
Moreover, the Supreme Court has long recognized that
rules regulating the conduct of attorneys practicing before them
are within the local rule-making authority of the district
courts. See, e.g., Theard, 354 U.S. at 281-83 (inherent power of ___ ____ ______
district courts to promulgate and enforce rules concerning
disbarment of attorneys). Local Rule 3.8(f) is a prophylactic
ethical rule regulating the conduct of attorneys appearing before
the court. Therefore, as in Link, a strong indication of intent ____
to abrogate is required.
There is nothing in the text of Rule 17 to suggest it
was intended to abrogate the power of a federal court to regulate
the conduct of attorneys appearing before it. Nor have
plaintiffs identified any historical evidence with respect to
Rule 17 indicating that it was intended to abrogate this power.
The Supreme Court's decision in Miner v. Atlass, 363 U.S. 641 _____ ______
(1960), is instructive in this regard. Miner held that a local _____
rule authorizing discovery-deposition practice in admiralty cases
was beyond the rule-making authority of the admiralty court. The
Court has since explained that the decision in Miner was based on _____
the fact that the Supreme Court itself had previously omitted the
precise discovery procedure from among the Civil Rules adopted as
part of the Admiralty Rules. See Colgrove, 413 U.S. at 163-64 ___ ________
____________________
23 As the district court noted, although there is no procedure
in Rule 17 for quashing a testimonial subpoena, courts have, on
their own authority, extended the Rule's procedures regarding the
quashing of document subpoenas to cover testimonial subpoenas.
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n.23. The Court explained: "Miner held that this omission 'must _____
be taken as an advertent declination of the opportunity to
institute the discovery-deposition procedure of Civil Rule 26(a)
throughout courts of admiralty.'" Id. (quoting Miner, 363 U.S. __ _____
at 647). The court therefore held that the local rule was not
consistent with the General Admiralty Rules. Miner, 363 U.S. at _____
647. See also Link, 370 U.S. at 631-32 (stating that "[i]t would ________ ____
require a much clearer expression of purpose than Rule 41(b)
provides for us to assume it was intended to abrogate" the
inherent power of a court to dismiss sua sponte for failure to __________
prosecute).
Although there is a history of grand jury independence
from its constituting court, see supra, plaintiffs have directed ___ _____
us to no historical evidence -- on a par with that, for example,
in Miner -- relating to the promulgation of Rule 17 to suggest _____
that it was intended to codify this policy. The lack of
historical evidence is particularly significant because Rule 17
was adopted in 1944, well prior to the line of Supreme Court
cases setting the parameters of grand jury independence. See ___
generally United States v. Williams, 112 S. Ct. 1735 (1992); _________ _____________ ________
United States v. Dionisio, 410 U.S. 1 (1973); United States v. ______________ ________ _____________
Calandra, 414 U.S. 338 (1974); Branzburg v. Hayes, 408 U.S. 665 ________ _________ _____
(1972). Furthermore, in most instances, there is simply no
reason for judicial involvement in the subpoena process prior to
service. Thus, the Rule's silence with respect to the issue does
not necessarily imply anything other than silence. We therefore
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conclude that Local Rule 3.8(f) is not inconsistent with the text
or purpose of Rule 17.24
B. Rule 57 B. Rule 57 _______
Baylson also held, relying on the Comment to Rule 57, _______
that the local rule is invalid because it "goes beyond the
'matters of detail' contemplated by [Rule] 57." Baylson, 975 _______
F.2d at 108. We reject the Baylson court's reliance on the _______
Comment to the Rule, rather than the text.25 It is true that
in ascertaining the meaning of the federal rules of procedure,
"the construction given to them by the [Advisory] Committee is of
weight." Mississippi Pub. Corp. v. Murphree, 326 U.S. 438, 444- ______________________ ________
45 (1946). But the Comment cannot change the unambiguous
language of a duly adopted federal rule. Thus, we agree with the
district court that "the commentary to Rule 57 cannot limit the
district courts' rulemaking power in ways not prescribed by the
Rule's text." Moreover, Baylson's conclusion that district _______
____________________
24 We also reject plaintiffs' argument that Local Rule 3.8(f) is
inconsistent with grand jury secrecy requirements contained in
Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 6(e). We agree with the
district court that "the same secrecy issues arise in the context
of post-service motions to quash, and district courts have
routinely used in camera procedures to ensure that Rule 6(e) is _________
not violated." Almond, 852 F. Supp. at 83-84 n.6 (citing United ______ ______
States v. R. Enterprises, Inc., 498 U.S. 292, 302 (1991)). See ______ _____________________ ___
supra at p. 20 (discussing the secrecy issue). _____
25 The Advisory Committee's comment to Rule 57 provides that
the purpose of the rule is to leave the individual courts free to
regulate some "matters of detail", either by local rule or usage.
The comment goes on to state that among such matters are "the
mode of impanelling a jury, the manner and order of interposing
challenges to jurors, the manner of selecting the foreman of a
trial jury, the matter of sealed verdicts, the order of counsel's
arguments to the jury, and other similar details."
-39-
courts' rule-making authority is limited to "matters of detail"
is in direct conflict with the Supreme Court's decisions in
Colgrove, 413 U.S. at 164 (upholding local rule providing for ________
six-person juries) and Theard 54 U.S. at 281-83 (upholding rule ______
concerning disbarment of attorneys), neither of which involved
"matters of detail." Along this line, we have canvassed the
Supreme Court's decisions with respect to district courts' local
rule-making authority and found no cases that rely on the Comment
to Rule 57. Finally, we point out that Rule 57, which was
adopted in 1944, was rewritten in 1985 and now provides for
"appropriate public notice and an opportunity to comment," and
for review of local rules by the judicial council of the circuit.
We think these additions indicate that, at least by 1985, it was
clear that district courts' rule-making authority was not limited
to mere "matters of detail."
For the foregoing reasons, we conclude that Local Rule
3.8(f), as applied to grand jury subpoenas, is a legitimate
exercise of the rule-making authority of the United States
District Court for Rhode Island. Accordingly, the district
court's decision to the contrary is reversed.
IV. Trial Subpoenas IV. Trial Subpoenas _______________
The district court held that the United States District
Court for Rhode Island has the power to adopt and enforce Local
Rule 3.8(f), as applied to trial subpoenas. We agree. The
analysis supporting our conclusion that Local Rule 3.8(f) is a
valid exercise of the district court's rule-making authority, as
-40-
applied to grand jury subpoenas, applies with even more force
with respect to trial subpoenas. The Supreme Court has
recognized that the power of federal district courts to adopt
rules regarding trials is broader than with respect to its power
over the grand jury. Williams, 112 S. Ct. at 1744. Moreover, ________
because we conclude that Local Rule 3.8(f), as applied to grand
jury subpoenas, is not inconsistent with either Rule 17 or Rule
57 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure 17, it follows that
it is not inconsistent with these Rules as applied to trial
subpoenas.26 Plaintiffs have presented us with no persuasive
authority to the contrary. The district court's decision
granting summary judgment for the federal defendants is,
therefore, affirmed.
V. Issues Involving the State Version of Rule 3.8(f) V. Issues Involving the State Version of Rule 3.8(f) _________________________________________________
Our decision that Local Rule 3.8(f) is a valid exercise
of the federal district court's rule-making authority moots the
issues raised by the state defendants with respect to the state
version of Rule 3.8(f). We will briefly explain why.
The district court held that, because the federal
version of Rule 3.8(f) is invalid as applied to grand jury
subpoenas, enforcing the state version of Rule 3.8(f) against
federal prosecutors practicing in federal court would violate the
____________________
26 As the district court noted, because "Rule 17 does not
differentiate between grand jury and trial subpoenas, but instead
sets out the basic mechanics governing all types of subpoenas,"
the analysis with respect to Rule 17 "applies with equal force to
both applications of Local Rule 3.8(f)." Almond, 852 F. Supp. at ______
91.
-41-
Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution. The district
court's Supremacy Clause analysis was premised on its holding
that the federal version of the Rule is invalid. Because we
conclude here that Local Rule 3.8(f) is a valid exercise of the
federal district court's rule-making authority, it is the federal
version of the Rule that will be enforced against federal
prosecutors practicing in Rhode Island federal court. The
Supremacy Clause is relevant only to state interference with
federal laws. See Hillsborough County v. Automated Medical ___ ____________________ __________________
Laboratories, Inc., 471 U.S. 707 (1985). There is, therefore, no __________________
conflict with the Supremacy Clause, and the decision of the
district court to the contrary is necessarily reversed.
Similarly, the state defendants' contention that the
district court lacked subject matter jurisdiction to review the
validity of the state version of Rule 3.8(f) by virtue of the
"Rooker-Feldman" doctrine is mooted by our decision upholding the ______ _______
federal version of Rule 3.8(f). See Rooker v. Fidelity Trust ___ ______ _______________
Company, 263 U.S. 444; District of Columbia Court of Appeals v. _______ ______________________________________
Feldman, 460 U.S. 488 (1983). That is, we have no occasion to _______
address the state version of the Rule.
CONCLUSION CONCLUSION
For the reasons stated herein, we conclude that the
United States District Court for Rhode Island has the rule-making
authority to adopt and enforce Local Rule 3.8(f), as applied to
both grand jury and trial subpoenas. The decision of the
district court is affirmed in part and reversed in part. ________________ ________________
-42-
Appendix A __________
Rule 3.8. Special Responsibilities of a Prosecutor. The Rule 3.8. Special Responsibilities of a Prosecutor.
prosecutor in a criminal case shall:
* * *
(f) not, without prior judicial approval,
subpoena a lawyer for the purpose of
compelling the lawyer to provide evidence
concerning a person who is or was represented
by the lawyer when such evidence was obtained
as a result of the attorney-client
relationship.
COMMENT
* * *
The prohibition in paragraph (f) was added
because of the increasing incidence of grand
jury and trial subpoenas directed toward
attorneys. It is the belief of the committee
that the requirements of prior judicial
approval, which should be granted or denied
after the opportunity for an adversarial
proceeding, will serve as an appropriate
safeguard to this practice and its threat to
the confidentiality and integrity of the
attorney-client relationship. The committee
believes that a court called upon for
judicial approval should be guided by
appropriate standards. See e.g., United ___ ____ ______
States v. Klubock, 832 F.2d 664 (1st Cir. ______ _______
1987) (en banc). Accordingly, prior judicial
approval should be withheld unless (1) the
information sought is not protected from
disclosure by an applicable privilege, (2)
the evidence sought is essential to the
successful completion of an ongoing
investigation or prosecution and is not
merely peripheral, cumulative, or
speculative, (3) the subpoena lists the
information sought with particularity, is
directed at information regarding a limited
subject matter in a reasonably limited period
of time, and gives reasonable and timely
notice, (4) the purpose of the subpoena is
not to harass the attorney or his or her
client, and (5) the prosecutor has
unsuccessfully made all reasonable attempts
to obtain the information sought from non-
-43-
attorney sources and there is no other
feasible alternative to obtain the
information.
See Report to the House Delegates, ABA Criminal Justice Section, ___ _____________________________
February 1988.
-44-
Appendix B __________
Rule 17. Subpoena Rule 17. Subpoena
(a) For Attendance of Witnesses; Form; Issuance. A subpoena (a) For Attendance of Witnesses; Form; Issuance.
shall be issued by the clerk under the seal of the court. It
shall state the name of the court and the title, if any, of the
proceeding, and shall command each person to whom it is directed
to attend and give testimony at the time and place specified
therein. The clerk shall issue a subpoena, signed and sealed but
otherwise in blank to a party requesting it, who shall fill in
the blanks before it is served. A subpoena shall be issued by a
United States magistrate judge in a proceeding before that
magistrate judge, but it need not be under the seal of the court.
(b) Defendants Unable to Pay. The court shall order at any (b) Defendants Unable to Pay.
time that a subpoena be issued for service on a named witness
upon an ex parte application of a defendant upon a satisfactory __ _____
showing that the defendant is financially unable to pay the fees
of the witness and that the presence of the witness is necessary
to an adequate defense. If the court orders the subpoena to be
issued the costs incurred by the process and the fees of the
witness so subpoenaed shall be paid in the same manner in which
similar costs and fees are paid in case of a witness subpoenaed
in behalf of the government.
(c) For Production of Documentary Evidence and of Objects. A (c) For Production of Documentary Evidence and of Objects.
subpoena may also command the person to whom it is directed to
produce the books, papers, documents or other objects designated
therein. The court on motion made promptly may quash or modify
the subpoena if compliance would be unreasonable or
oppressive. The court may direct that books, papers, documents
or objects designated in the subpoena be produced before the
court at a time prior to the trial or prior to the time when they
are to be offered in evidence and may upon their production
permit the books, papers, documents or objects or portions
thereof to be inspected by the parties and their attorneys.
(d) Service. A subpoena may be served by the marshal, by a (d) Service.
deputy marshal or by any other person who is not a party and who
is not less than 18 years of age. Service of a subpoena shall be
made by delivering a copy thereof to the person named and by
tendering to that person the fee for 1 day's attendance and the
mileage allowed by law. Fees and mileage need not be tendered to
the witness upon service of a subpoena issued in behalf of the
United States or an officer or agency thereof.
-45-
(e) Place of Service. (e) Place of Service.
(1) In United States. A subpoena requiring the attendance of (1) In United States.
a witness at a hearing or trial may be served at any place within
the United States.
(2) Abroad. A subpoena directed to a witness in a foreign (2) Abroad.
country shall issue under the circumstances and in the manner and
be served as provided in Title 28, USC 1783.
(f) For Taking Deposition; Place of Examination. (f) For Taking Deposition; Place of Examination.
(1) Issuance. An order to take a deposition authorizes the (1) Issuance.
issuance by the clerk of the court for the district in which the
deposition is to be taken of subpoenas for the persons named or
described therein.
(2) Place. The witness whose deposition is to be taken may (2) Place.
be required by subpoena to attend at any place designated by the
trial court, taking into account the convenience of the witness
and the parties.
(g) Contempt. Failure by any person without adequate excuse to (g) Contempt.
obey a subpoena served upon that person may be deemed a contempt
of the court from which the subpoena issued or of the court for
the district in which it issued if it was issued by a United
States magistrate judge.
(h) Information Not Subject to Subpoena. Statements made by (h) Information Not Subject to Subpoena.
witnesses or prospective witnesses may not be subpoenaed from the
government or the defendant under this rule, but shall be subject
to production only in accordance with the provisions of Rule
26.2.
-46-
-47-
Related
The United States v. Hudson and Goodwin
11 U.S. 32 (Supreme Court, 1812)
Ex Parte Burr
22 U.S. 529 (Supreme Court, 1824)
Story v. Livingston
38 U.S. 359 (Supreme Court, 1839)
Mississippi Publishing Corp. v. Murphree
326 U.S. 438 (Supreme Court, 1946)
Hickman v. Taylor
329 U.S. 495 (Supreme Court, 1947)
Theard v. United States
354 U.S. 278 (Supreme Court, 1957)
Miner v. Atlass
363 U.S. 641 (Supreme Court, 1960)
Link v. Wabash Railroad
370 U.S. 626 (Supreme Court, 1962)
Branzburg v. Hayes
408 U.S. 665 (Supreme Court, 1972)
United States v. Dionisio
410 U.S. 1 (Supreme Court, 1973)
Colgrove v. Battin
413 U.S. 149 (Supreme Court, 1973)
United States v. Calandra
414 U.S. 338 (Supreme Court, 1974)
Goldfarb v. Virginia State Bar
421 U.S. 773 (Supreme Court, 1975)
Trans World Airlines, Inc. v. Hardison
432 U.S. 63 (Supreme Court, 1977)
United States v. Hasting
461 U.S. 499 (Supreme Court, 1983)
Hillsborough County v. Automated Medical Laboratories, Inc.
471 U.S. 707 (Supreme Court, 1985)
Frazier v. Heebe
482 U.S. 641 (Supreme Court, 1987)
Bank of Nova Scotia v. United States
487 U.S. 250 (Supreme Court, 1988)
United States v. R. Enterprises, Inc.
498 U.S. 292 (Supreme Court, 1991)
Chambers v. Nasco, Inc.
501 U.S. 32 (Supreme Court, 1991)
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