NOT FOR PUBLICATION WITHOUT THE APPROVAL OF THE APPELLATE DIVISION
SUPERIOR COURT OF NEW JERSEY APPELLATE DIVISION DOCKET NO. A-0180-18T4
STATE OF NEW JERSEY,
Plaintiff-Appellant, APPROVED FOR PUBLICATION
May 3, 2019 v. APPELLATE DIVISION JUAN RODRIGUEZ,
Defendant-Respondent. ___________________________
Argued April 8, 2019 – Decided May 3, 2019
Before Judges Sabatino, Sumners and Mitterhoff.
On appeal from Superior Court of New Jersey, Law Division, Somerset County, Indictment No. 18-04- 0195.
Paul H. Heinzel, Assistant Prosecutor, argued the cause for appellant (Michael H. Robertson, Somerset County Prosecutor, attorney; Paul H. Heinzel and Alexander C. Mech, Assistant Prosecutor, of counsel and on the briefs).
John P. Morris argued the cause for respondent.
Zachary G. Markarian, Assistant Deputy Public Defender, argued the cause for amicus curiae Office of the Public Defender (Joseph E. Krakora, Public Defender, attorney; Zachary G. Markarian, of counsel and on the brief). Jane C. Schuster, Deputy Attorney General, argued the cause for amicus curiae Attorney General (Gurbir S. Grewal, Attorney General, attorney; Jane C. Schuster, of counsel and on the brief).
The opinion of the court was delivered by
SABATINO, P.J.A.D.
In State v. Witt, 223 N.J. 409, 415 (2015), the Supreme Court revised
the standards under New Jersey law governing police searches of motor
vehicles that have been lawfully stopped at the roadside. The Court held such
nonconsensual roadside searches may be conducted without a warrant if: (1)
the police have probable cause to believe the vehicle contains evidence of
criminal activity; and (2) the situation arose from unforeseeable and
spontaneous circumstances. Id. at 446-48.
In the present roadside search case, the trial court suppressed bags of
marijuana and other incriminating evidence police officers found within a
vehicle driven by defendant, which they had stopped for traffic violations. The
court construed Witt to disallow a warrantless on-the-spot roadside search
where the police at the scene have sufficient grounds to have the vehicle towed
away and impounded. The court ruled the police in such circumstances, absent
valid consent, need to obtain a warrant in order to search the vehicle's interior.
We reverse the suppression order. We hold the police officers were not
required to impound defendant's vehicle in order to search it under the
A-0180-18T4 2 circumstances presented. The officers had the discretion to proceed instead
with a warrantless roadside search, because the two critical elements of Witt,
i.e., probable cause and spontaneity, were satisfied. In addition, there was no
unreasonable delay in the officers making their decision to proceed with the
search at the scene.
I.
A.
The State has charged defendant Juan Rodriguez in a one-count
indictment with first-degree possession of a controlled dangerous substance,
namely marijuana in a quantity of at least twenty-five pounds, with the intent
to manufacture, distribute, or dispense it, N.J.S.A. 2C:35-5(a)(1)
and -5(b)(10)(a). As we will explain in more detail, the bags of marijuana and
other contraband were seized during a roadside stop without a warrant from a
vehicle that defendant had been driving.
Defendant moved to suppress the seized items. The trial court
conducted a suppression hearing at which one of the police officers who had
been involved in the search testified. The court was also provided with the
motor vehicle recordings ("MVRs") from two squad cars of responding police
officers, which filmed portions of the events. The court also reviewed
A-0180-18T4 3 transcripts of the audio portions of the MVRs and several photographs and
documents.
B.
The pertinent facts that emerged at the suppression hearing were
substantially undisputed by the parties.
On January 1, 2018, Police Officer Kevin Olah of Warren Township was
in a marked patrol vehicle at a gas station on Martinsville Road in Basking
Ridge. At approximately 2:07 a.m., Officer Olah observed a white Jeep Grand
Cherokee with an Alabama license plate drive past. He noticed the Jeep's
passenger-side headlight was out. He thereafter observed several air
fresheners hanging from the rearview mirror, in violation of the traffic laws.
Olah followed the Jeep on Liberty Corner Road. As the Jeep took the
eastbound entrance ramp for Interstate 78, Olah initiated a motor vehicle stop.
A few minutes later, Police Officer Thomas Clarke arrived at the scene to
assist.
Olah approached the passenger side of the vehicle and began speaking
with the driver, the Jeep's sole occupant. The driver presented a California
driver's license that identified him as Juan Rodriguez. Olah smelled the odor
of raw marijuana emanating from the Jeep. He also noticed several small
pieces of marijuana on the front passenger seat. Defendant told Olah that he
A-0180-18T4 4 did not own the vehicle. He claimed he had borrowed the Jeep from a friend
earlier that evening, and was on his way back from Pennsylvania, where he
had gone to see a woman.
Olah returned to his patrol car and conducted a computer check on
defendant. The check revealed that defendant's driver's license was suspended.
Olah approached the Jeep again and spoke with defendant about the odor of
marijuana. Defendant told the officer that others might have smoked
marijuana in the Jeep earlier that day.
Olah then instructed defendant to get out of the Jeep. He searched
defendant, but found nothing of evidential value. The officer then presented
defendant with a standard consent-to-search form and read it to him.
Defendant denied consent. Defendant then signed the form and acknowledged
his denial.
Although defendant was not yet arrested, he sat in the back of a patrol
car while Officers Olah and Clarke searched the Jeep. Olah found
approximately $5,600 in one-hundred dollar bills between the center console
and the dashboard and $4,920 in twenty-dollar bills in the center console.
Olah also discovered $15,000 in Western Union money order receipts in t he
center console.
A-0180-18T4 5 According to Olah, the odor of marijuana became stronger as he moved
toward the Jeep's rear cargo area. He accordingly searched that cargo area,
which was contiguous with and not separate from the passenger area. There
Olah spotted and seized a large, brown cardboard box, which he described as
emanating an "overwhelming" odor of raw marijuana.
Olah asked defendant if the box was his, which defendant denied.
Defendant claimed he did not know what was inside of the box and that it had
already been in the Jeep when he borrowed it from his friend. At this point,
another police officer arrived on the scene to provide additional backup.
Olah opened the box, which was taped and glued shut. Inside the box,
Olah discovered twenty-seven plastic bags. Each bag had approximately one
pound of what was suspected to be marijuana. Defendant was then placed
under arrest.
The motion judge noted that the police report documented a tow dispatch
at 2:42:58 a.m., less than a minute after defendant's arrest at 2:42:02 a.m. The
police photographed the scene, and an officer remained with the Jeep until a
tow truck arrived. All of the evidence was secured in the Jeep during the tow
to the police headquarters. Officer Clarke followed closely behind the tow
truck with his MVR activated, so as to ensure the security of the contraband
and to document the contraband's chain of custody.
A-0180-18T4 6 The tow truck parked the Jeep at police headquarters. Officer Olah
removed the evidence from the Jeep and took it into headquarters. The tow
truck took the Jeep to the towing lot, and Olah completed an impound report. 1
Olah then field tested the contents of one of the bags, and the test
yielded a positive result for marijuana. All told, the twenty-seven bags
contained approximately twenty-eight pounds of marijuana.
Defendant was escorted to the processing room at the police station. A
search of his person yielded $220 in cash. At approximately 3:31 a.m., Olah
issued defendant Miranda2 warnings. Defendant initialed and signed the
Miranda form, but invoked his right to remain silent.
Officer Olah and a police detective counted and took photographs of all
of the recovered currency. The cash totaled $10,740. The Western Union
money order receipts totaling $15,000 were also photographed and logged into
evidence.
C.
Upon considering these events, the trial court issued an order and written
opinion on July 27, 2018, granting defendant's motion to suppress the drugs
1 Defendant does not contend any break in the chain of custody of the seized items. 2 Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
A-0180-18T4 7 and other contraband seized in the roadside stop. The court found the motor
vehicle stop itself was justified, as defendant conceded. However, the court
ruled the police needed a warrant in order to search the Jeep under the
circumstances presented.
Specifically, the trial court rejected the State's reliance upon the
automobile exception to the constitutional warrant requirement. The court
accepted defendant's contention that, as the situation unfolded at the roadside,
it was clear that the Jeep was going to be towed and impounded. The court
noted in this regard that defendant lacked a valid driver's license, was secured
in the back of a police car, and "the registered owner of the vehicle was not
available or on sight." The court found "there was no indication to believe that
the [Jeep] or its contents would be subject to being removed, tampered with, or
otherwise disturbed before a warrant could be obtained." In addition,
defendant had declined to give his consent to a search of the Jeep.
Given these circumstances, the trial court found no exigency present that
could justify an immediate warrantless search of the Jeep's interior. Instead,
the court's opinion signifies that the police should have impounded the Jeep
and procured a warrant in order to search it.
A-0180-18T4 8 D.
The prosecution moved for leave to appeal the suppression ruling, which
this court granted. At our invitation, the Attorney General filed an amicus
brief in further support of the prosecutor's arguments, while the Office of the
Public Defender filed an amicus brief supporting private defense counsel's
opposition.3
The State argues the trial court strayed from the tenets of Witt in
requiring the police to demonstrate exigency in order to justify a warrantless
roadside search in a situation where, as here, the police spontaneously have
probable cause to believe a vehicle contains evidence of criminal activity. The
defense lawyers counter that Witt does not permit the police to violate a
motorist's privacy interests by conducting a warrantless nonconsensual
roadside search of a vehicle that clearly is going to be impounded.
II.
As the trial court appropriately recognized, the Fourth Amendment of
the United States Constitution and Article I, paragraph 7 of the New Jersey
Constitution limit the ability of government officials to search private property
without a search warrant. Warrantless searches and seizures are presumptively
3 We express our appreciation to the Attorney General and the Office of the Public Defender for their thoughtful submissions and their helpful participation in the appellate oral argument.
A-0180-18T4 9 invalid unless the State shows the search was justified under one of the
specific judicially recognized exceptions to the warrant requirement. State v.
Pineiro, 181 N.J. 13, 19 (2004); State v. Maryland, 167 N.J. 471, 482 (2001);
see also Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218, 219 (1973).
As we have noted, the State has invoked in this case what is known as
the "automobile exception" to the warrant requirement. 4 The exception derives
from a longstanding judicial recognition of: (1) the inherent mobility of motor
vehicles; (2) the generally diminished expectation of privacy in a vehicle as
compared with a home; and (3) the practical reality that the "intrusion
occasioned by a prompt search based on probable cause is not necessarily
greater than a prolonged detention of the vehicle and its occupants while the
police secure a warrant." Witt, 223 N.J. at 422-23.
Our Supreme Court in Witt announced in 2015 a sharp departure from a
more narrow construction of the automobile exception the Court had
previously adopted in State v. Pena-Flores, 198 N.J. 6 (2009), and in State v.
Cooke, 163 N.J. 657 (2000). Under those earlier formulations, the police
needed to have exigent circumstances to conduct a warrantless, nonconsensual
4 We do not consider, and the State has not advanced on appeal, other hypothetical exceptions to the warrant requirement the State did not invoke in the trial court, such as the "inevitable discovery" doctrine. See State v. Robinson, 200 N.J. 1, 20 (2009) (disfavoring appellate reliance on arguments not raised below).
A-0180-18T4 10 roadside search of a vehicle. In Pena-Flores, the Court expressed a multi-
factor test to evaluate whether such exigent circumstances were present,
including such factors as the time of day, the location of the stop, the ratio of
police officers to suspects, and several other variables. 198 N.J. at 29.
The Court's opinion in Witt recognized that experience has shown the
multi-factor exigent circumstances test of Pena-Flores and Cooke was difficult
to apply with consistency, particularly for law enforcement officers on patrol,
and placed upon them "unrealistic and impracticable burdens." 223 N.J. at
414-15. In addition, research from one county had revealed that the average
time to procure a telephonic search warrant took nearly a full hour from the
inception of the call to its completion, with even longer average times for some
telephonic search warrants sought by the State Police. Id. at 436.
These impediments caused the police to seek on-the-spot consent from
motorists to searches more frequently, a process which generated its own
difficulties and uncertainties. Id. at 442-43. Moreover, the Court found that
the Pena-Flores/Cooke standard of exigency "does not provide greater liberty
or security to New Jersey's citizens." Id. at 414.
Based upon these and other considerations, the Court in Witt announced
a bright-line rule to govern roadside automobile searches henceforth in this
State. The approach in Witt prospectively reinstated various principles the
A-0180-18T4 11 Court had embraced thirty-four years earlier in State v. Alston, 88 N.J. 211
(1981). In the aftermath of Witt, the current law of this State 5 now authorizes
warrantless on-the-scene searches of motor vehicles in situations where: (1)
the police have probable cause to believe the vehicle contains evidence of a
criminal offense; and (2) the circumstances giving rise to probable cause are
unforeseeable and spontaneous. Witt, 223 N.J. at 447-48.
In reinstating this more predictable test in Witt, the Court rejected
arguments that giving such warrantless search authority to the police is
unnecessary where the driver and any other occupants of the vehicle have been
secured. As Justice Albin's majority opinion explained, the automobile
exception is not nullified "merely because 'the particular occupants of the
vehicle may have been removed from the [vehicle], arrested, or otherwise
restricted in their freedom of movement[.]'" Id. at 428 (quoting Alston, 88 N.J.
at 234).
As a caveat to its holding, the Court in Witt did observe that if police do
choose to have a vehicle towed away and impounded, they will need a warrant
to search its interior at that later time, subject to possible routine inventory
5 The roadside search in the present case occurred after the date of the Court's September 24, 2015 opinion in Witt. Hence, the Witt standards apply.
A-0180-18T4 12 procedures that are not aimed at finding contraband. Id. at 448-49, 49 n.9.6
The defense in this case stresses this observation. In particular, the defense
argues that once the basis to impound a vehicle becomes clear, police officers
have no right to proceed with an on-the-spot roadside search, even if the
officers have probable cause of criminality that arose spontaneously. The trial
court essentially adopted that defense argument, by requiring officers to refrain
from an immediate warrantless search once the need to impound the vehicle is
obvious.
We respectfully do not construe Witt to convey such a limitation upon
the automobile exception. Nothing in Witt states that a roadside search of a
vehicle based upon probable cause cannot be performed if the vehicle is going
to be impounded. We instead read Witt as affording police officers at the
scene the discretion to choose between searching the vehicle immediately if
they spontaneously have probable cause to do so, or to have the vehicle
removed and impounded and seek a search warrant later. 7
6 Although not invoked by the State here, the Court's footnote in Witt also contemplated the possibility of a lawful warrantless search in situations "based on a true exigency." Ibid. 7 There is also the possibility of obtaining a telephonic warrant, although the Court in Witt noted that doing so can be time-consuming. Id. at 435-36.
A-0180-18T4 13 We are mindful the Court's opinion in Witt did comment that
"[w]arrantless searches should not be based on fake exigencies." Id. at 449.
The defense and the trial court appear to interpret this comment to mean that
warrantless roadside searches are allowable only if they are based on genuine
exigencies, regardless of the presence of probable cause. However, the Court's
comment about exigency must be considered in the full context of the
paragraph in Witt where it appears. In that paragraph, the Court explains that
it is parting from "federal jurisprudence that allows a police officer to conduct
a warrantless search at headquarters merely because he could have done so on
the side of the road." Id. at 448 (contrasting New Jersey's approach in Witt
from the federal approach in Chambers v. Maroney, 399 U.S. 42, 52 (1970)).
Quoting his previous dissent in Pena-Flores, Justice Albin's majority decision
in Witt adds that "'[w]hatever inherent exigency justifies a warrantless search
at the scene under the automobile exception certainly cannot justify the failure
to secure a warrant after towing and impounding the car' at headquarters when
it is practicable to do so." Id. at 448-49 (quoting Pena-Flores, 198 N.J. at 39
n.1 (Albin, J., dissenting)).
Viewed in its proper context, the Court's reference in Witt to "fake
exigencies" signifies that the police cannot rely upon a contrived justification
to search an impounded vehicle without a warrant merely because the vehicle
A-0180-18T4 14 could have been searched earlier at the roadside. The whole tenor of the Witt
opinion is to eliminate the need for police to establish "exigencies" at the
roadside to proceed with a warrantless search. Instead, the Court readopted a
bright-line rule, one that is predicated on the requirements of spontaneity and
probable cause. That is the test we are obligated to apply today.
The Public Defender contends the position advocated by the State will
result in greater risks to the personal safety of police officers who attempt to
search a car at the side of the road, and will also cause a greater infringement
on the liberty and privacy of motorists. Neither of those propositions is
inexorably true.
In some instances, the police having probable cause will nevertheless
choose to wait to search the vehicle with a warrant at a later time because of
heavy traffic, poor lighting, weather conditions, security concerns, or other
practical considerations. At times, officers may conduct only a cursory
inspection at the scene and seek to conduct a more extensive search post-
impoundment.
Moreover, an immediate search will not necessarily lead to greater
infringements upon the personal liberty of all motorists. For example, in some
instances (albeit not this particular case), an on-the-spot search will turn up
nothing, and the stopped motorist may be free to drive away with only a traffic
A-0180-18T4 15 citation. An inflexible rule of mandatory impoundment could impose greater
inconvenience upon motorists, particularly if the vehicle's owner, a relative, or
a friend of the motorist is nearby and able to come and remove the vehicle
from the scene.8 Id. at 415 (noting that if a vehicle is impounded, the period of
detention of its occupants "will be extended").
That said, we do appreciate there are competing policy arguments
presented here concerning the appropriate scope of Witt, and fairly debatable
questions surrounding when impoundment should be the preferred course of
action. Even so, it is not our role as an intermediate appellate court to engraft
upon Witt an exception that was not expressed in the Court's detailed majority
opinion.9 State v. Hill, 139 N.J. Super. 548, 551 (App. Div. 1976) (noting our
limited role as an intermediate appellate court).
8 We recognize in the present case, Officer Olah admitted on cross- examination that he did not ask defendant if some other person was available to drive the Jeep away. However, the circumstances did not readily indicate that such a third party was likely to be nearby to remove the car. In particular, defendant had a suspended California license, the Jeep was registered in Alabama, according to defendant the Jeep was owned by a friend in New York, and defendant used it to visit a woman in Pennsylvania. 9 That said, we note the State has acknowledged at oral argument on appeal that the police may not detain motorists for an unreasonable length of time while deciding whether to impound the vehicle or not. See Rodriguez v. United States, 575 U.S. ___, 135 S. Ct. 1609, 1612 (2015) (disallowing police stops of motorists that exceed "the time needed to handle the matter"). Here, no such unreasonable delay is apparent from the record.
A-0180-18T4 16 Consequently, we reverse the trial court's suppression order, which was
erroneously based upon a no-longer-required showing of exigency that the
Court repudiated in Witt. The record here demonstrates the police at the
roadside had ample probable cause to believe the Jeep contained additional
quantities of marijuana and potentially other evidence of illegal activity. The
persisting smell of raw marijuana detected by Officer Olah – who the trial
court found to be a credible witness – supplied the police with probable cause
to search the rear cargo area within the Jeep from which the smell appeared to
be emanating. See State v. Myers, 442 N.J. Super. 287, 297 (App. Div. 2015)
(recognizing a police officer's detection of the odor of marijuana can suffice as
probable cause that an offense has been committed). Furthermore, the
probable cause here arose spontaneously.
In sum, the requirements of the automobile exception as set forth in Witt
were established in this case, and the warrantless roadside search of the Jeep
was thereby justified.
Reversed and remanded. We do not retain jurisdiction.
A-0180-18T4 17