MERRITT, C.J., delivered the opinion of the court, in which WEBER, D.J., joined. BATCHELDER, J. (pp. 156-59), delivered a separate opinion concurring in the result only.
MERRITT, Chief Judge.
The issue before us is whether Dana Ramsey, a junior high school teacher in Dickson, a small Tennessee town, violated the free speech rights of one of her ninth grade students, Brittney Settle, by refusing to accept a research paper entitled “The Life of Jesus Christ,” and by giving her a “zero” for failing to write on another topic. Although this paper topic concerns religious subject matter, the plaintiff does not bring her case under the Free Exercise Clause or the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. Instead, she has chosen to challenge Ms. Ramsey’s rejection of her topic as restricting her rights of free speech under the First Amendment. The district court granted summary judgment for the defendants and dismissed the case. We now affirm the district court’s judgment.
FACTS
During the week of March 15, 1991, Ms. Ramsey assigned a research paper to her ninth-grade class at Dickson County Junior High School. In assigning the paper, the teacher stressed to the students that she wanted them to learn how to research a topic, synthesize the information they gathered, and write a paper using that information. Thus, as she explained, students could not merely expound on their own ideas. She required that each student use four sources in performing the research.
Each student could select his or her own topic, subject to the teacher’s approval. She required only that each topic be “interesting, researehable and decent.” She posted a sign-up sheet for each student to list the topic he or she had chosen. Between March 15 and March 22 students could sign up and change their topics at will. On March 22, Ms. Ramsey removed the sign-up sheet to [154]*154approve the topics, and afterwards students had to receive her approval if they wished to change their topic. On March 26, each student was required to hand in an outline of the paper he or she planned to write.
The plaintiff originally signed up to write a paper on “Drama.” Subsequently, she changed her mind after deciding that the topic might be too broad. Without Ms. Ramsey's prior approval, plaintiff attempted to submit an outline for a paper entitled “The Life of Jesus Christ.” The teacher refused to accept the outline and told plaintiff she would have to select another topic. At this point, plaintiffs father intervened to complain and met with" the principal of the school, Ms. Ramsey, and other school officials. Ms. Ramsey told plaintiffs father that she would accept a paper on religion as long as it did not deal solely with Christianity or the Life of Christ. On April 3, plaintiff attempted to submit another outline, with the title “A Scientific and Historical Approach to Jesus Christ.” Ms. Ramsey rejected this outline as well. Ultimately, the principal, the superintendent of schools, and the Dickson County School Board all expressed their support for Ms. Ramsey's decision and noted that the teacher had not exceeded her discretion as far as they were concerned. Plaintiff and her family decided to make an issue of the matter before the School Board and then in court.
In her statement at a hearing before the School Board, and in depositions taken for the litigation of this case, Ms. Ramsey has explained that she refused to allow plaintiffs topic for a combination of reasons. First, she stated that the student had failed to receive permission to write on the topic prior to handing in the outline. Because plaintiff did not adhere to the requirement of submitting her topic for her teacher’s approval, she had to choose another topic.
Second, Ms. Ramsey said that she believed that it would be difficult for her to evaluate a research paper on a topic related to Jesus Christ. She stated that she knew that plaintiff had a strong personal belief in Christianity that would make it difficult for her to write a dispassionate research paper. Furthermore, Ms. Ramsey believed that the paper would be difficult to grade because plaintiff might take any criticisms of the paper too personally. Even remarks regarding grammar or organization might be misinterpreted as criticisms of plaintiffs religious beliefs. Ms. Ramsey thought it would be wiser to avoid such potential misunderstandings.
Third, the teacher indicated that she “just knew that we don’t deal with personal religion — personal religious beliefs. It’s just not an appropriate thing to do in a public school ... People don’t send their children to school for a teacher to get in a dialogue with personal religio[us] beliefs. They send them to learn to read and write and think. And you can do that without getting into personal religion.” (J.A. at 57).
Fourth, the teacher felt that because plaintiff knew a lot about Jesus Christ, she could produce an outline without doing any significant research, and thus defeat the purpose of the exercise. The teacher stated “it was a lot easier to write a quick little preliminary outline on Jesus Christ, which she knew a lot about, which most of my students knew a lot about.” (J.A. at 57-58). Further, she' said that part of the purpose of the paper was to have the students research a paper on a subject with which they were unfamiliar. (J.A. at 70).
Fifth, Ms. Ramsey at one point during her testimony before the School Board stated “the law says we are not to deal with religious issues in the classroom.” (J.A. at 222). She seems to have thought that she should not allow plaintiff to write on the topic of her choice because the law may prohibit this kind of religious paper in public school classrooms.
Sixth, while testifying before the school board, Ms. Ramsey also stated that she rejected the topic because the assignment required the use of four sources and that “all of the sources that you [are] going to find documenting the life of Jesus Christ derive from one source, the Bible.” (J.A. at 221). She seems to have meant primary or original sources, but during a previous deposition she said she allowed secondary sources: “I required that they have two books and two encyclopedias or resources, but they could [155]*155substitute using magazine articles or pamphlets.” (J.A. at 88).
As a result of plaintiffs refusal to comply with the requirements Ms. Ramsey had specified, she received a zero for the assignment. The student subsequently sued Ms. Ramsey for violating her rights of free speech. Judge Wiseman dismissed the case on a motion for summary judgment relying on Hazelwood Sch. Dist. v. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 260, 108 S.Ct. 562, 98 L.Ed.2d 592 (1988), which upheld a school official’s decision to censor a story in the school newspaper about pregnancy at the school. Plaintiff now appeals the district court’s ruling on two grounds. She contends that as a matter of law, Ms. Ramsey violated her First Amendment rights as applied to the states by the Fourteenth Amendment, and alternatively argues that there is a dispute of material fact as to what Ms. Ramsey’s actual reasons were for refusing to let her write the paper on Jesus Christ, making summary judgment inappropriate. We take up these arguments in turn.
DISCUSSION
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MERRITT, C.J., delivered the opinion of the court, in which WEBER, D.J., joined. BATCHELDER, J. (pp. 156-59), delivered a separate opinion concurring in the result only.
MERRITT, Chief Judge.
The issue before us is whether Dana Ramsey, a junior high school teacher in Dickson, a small Tennessee town, violated the free speech rights of one of her ninth grade students, Brittney Settle, by refusing to accept a research paper entitled “The Life of Jesus Christ,” and by giving her a “zero” for failing to write on another topic. Although this paper topic concerns religious subject matter, the plaintiff does not bring her case under the Free Exercise Clause or the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. Instead, she has chosen to challenge Ms. Ramsey’s rejection of her topic as restricting her rights of free speech under the First Amendment. The district court granted summary judgment for the defendants and dismissed the case. We now affirm the district court’s judgment.
FACTS
During the week of March 15, 1991, Ms. Ramsey assigned a research paper to her ninth-grade class at Dickson County Junior High School. In assigning the paper, the teacher stressed to the students that she wanted them to learn how to research a topic, synthesize the information they gathered, and write a paper using that information. Thus, as she explained, students could not merely expound on their own ideas. She required that each student use four sources in performing the research.
Each student could select his or her own topic, subject to the teacher’s approval. She required only that each topic be “interesting, researehable and decent.” She posted a sign-up sheet for each student to list the topic he or she had chosen. Between March 15 and March 22 students could sign up and change their topics at will. On March 22, Ms. Ramsey removed the sign-up sheet to [154]*154approve the topics, and afterwards students had to receive her approval if they wished to change their topic. On March 26, each student was required to hand in an outline of the paper he or she planned to write.
The plaintiff originally signed up to write a paper on “Drama.” Subsequently, she changed her mind after deciding that the topic might be too broad. Without Ms. Ramsey's prior approval, plaintiff attempted to submit an outline for a paper entitled “The Life of Jesus Christ.” The teacher refused to accept the outline and told plaintiff she would have to select another topic. At this point, plaintiffs father intervened to complain and met with" the principal of the school, Ms. Ramsey, and other school officials. Ms. Ramsey told plaintiffs father that she would accept a paper on religion as long as it did not deal solely with Christianity or the Life of Christ. On April 3, plaintiff attempted to submit another outline, with the title “A Scientific and Historical Approach to Jesus Christ.” Ms. Ramsey rejected this outline as well. Ultimately, the principal, the superintendent of schools, and the Dickson County School Board all expressed their support for Ms. Ramsey's decision and noted that the teacher had not exceeded her discretion as far as they were concerned. Plaintiff and her family decided to make an issue of the matter before the School Board and then in court.
In her statement at a hearing before the School Board, and in depositions taken for the litigation of this case, Ms. Ramsey has explained that she refused to allow plaintiffs topic for a combination of reasons. First, she stated that the student had failed to receive permission to write on the topic prior to handing in the outline. Because plaintiff did not adhere to the requirement of submitting her topic for her teacher’s approval, she had to choose another topic.
Second, Ms. Ramsey said that she believed that it would be difficult for her to evaluate a research paper on a topic related to Jesus Christ. She stated that she knew that plaintiff had a strong personal belief in Christianity that would make it difficult for her to write a dispassionate research paper. Furthermore, Ms. Ramsey believed that the paper would be difficult to grade because plaintiff might take any criticisms of the paper too personally. Even remarks regarding grammar or organization might be misinterpreted as criticisms of plaintiffs religious beliefs. Ms. Ramsey thought it would be wiser to avoid such potential misunderstandings.
Third, the teacher indicated that she “just knew that we don’t deal with personal religion — personal religious beliefs. It’s just not an appropriate thing to do in a public school ... People don’t send their children to school for a teacher to get in a dialogue with personal religio[us] beliefs. They send them to learn to read and write and think. And you can do that without getting into personal religion.” (J.A. at 57).
Fourth, the teacher felt that because plaintiff knew a lot about Jesus Christ, she could produce an outline without doing any significant research, and thus defeat the purpose of the exercise. The teacher stated “it was a lot easier to write a quick little preliminary outline on Jesus Christ, which she knew a lot about, which most of my students knew a lot about.” (J.A. at 57-58). Further, she' said that part of the purpose of the paper was to have the students research a paper on a subject with which they were unfamiliar. (J.A. at 70).
Fifth, Ms. Ramsey at one point during her testimony before the School Board stated “the law says we are not to deal with religious issues in the classroom.” (J.A. at 222). She seems to have thought that she should not allow plaintiff to write on the topic of her choice because the law may prohibit this kind of religious paper in public school classrooms.
Sixth, while testifying before the school board, Ms. Ramsey also stated that she rejected the topic because the assignment required the use of four sources and that “all of the sources that you [are] going to find documenting the life of Jesus Christ derive from one source, the Bible.” (J.A. at 221). She seems to have meant primary or original sources, but during a previous deposition she said she allowed secondary sources: “I required that they have two books and two encyclopedias or resources, but they could [155]*155substitute using magazine articles or pamphlets.” (J.A. at 88).
As a result of plaintiffs refusal to comply with the requirements Ms. Ramsey had specified, she received a zero for the assignment. The student subsequently sued Ms. Ramsey for violating her rights of free speech. Judge Wiseman dismissed the case on a motion for summary judgment relying on Hazelwood Sch. Dist. v. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 260, 108 S.Ct. 562, 98 L.Ed.2d 592 (1988), which upheld a school official’s decision to censor a story in the school newspaper about pregnancy at the school. Plaintiff now appeals the district court’s ruling on two grounds. She contends that as a matter of law, Ms. Ramsey violated her First Amendment rights as applied to the states by the Fourteenth Amendment, and alternatively argues that there is a dispute of material fact as to what Ms. Ramsey’s actual reasons were for refusing to let her write the paper on Jesus Christ, making summary judgment inappropriate. We take up these arguments in turn.
DISCUSSION
After reviewing the precedents concerning students’ rights of free speech within a public school, we find few cases that address the conflict between the student’s rights of speech in the classroom and a teacher’s responsibility to encourage decorum and scholarship, including her authority to determine course content, the selection of books, the topic of papers, the grades of students and similar questions. Students do not lose entirely their right to express themselves as individuals in the classroom, but federal courts should exercise particular restraint in classroom conflicts between student and teacher over matters falling within the ordinary authority of the teacher over curriculum and course content. “Courts do not and cannot intervene in the resolution of conflicts which arise in the daily operation of school systems and which do not directly and sharply implicate basic constitutional values.” Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 97, 104, 89 S.Ct. 266, 270, 21 L.Ed.2d 228 (1968).
The free speech rights of students in the classroom must be limited because effective education depends not only on controlling boisterous conduct, but also on maintaining the focus of the class on the assignment in question. So long as the teacher violates no positive law or school policy, the teacher has broad authority to base her grades for students on her view of the merits of the students’ work. Board of Curators of the Univ. of Mo. v. Horowitz, 435 U.S. 78, 98 S.Ct. 948, 55 L.Ed.2d 124 (1978); Parate v. Isibor, 868 F.2d 821, 828 (6th Cir.1989) (“[t]he individual professor’s assignment of a letter grade is protected speech.”) Grades are given as incentives for study, and they are the currency by which school work is measured.
Plaintiff argues that Ms. Ramsey’s rejection of her paper topic infringed upon her fundamental right to freedom of speech. The censorship in the Hazelwood ease, referred to earlier, involved a school newspaper, a kind of open forum for students, and even there the Supreme Court said that “educators do not offend the First Amendment by exercising editorial control over the style and context of student speech in school-sponsored activities so long as their actions are reasonably related to legitimate pedagogical concerns”. 404 U.S. at 273, 92 S.Ct. at 511. Where learning is the focus, as in the classroom, student speech may be even more circumscribed than in the school newspaper or other open forum. So long as the teacher limits speech or grades speech in the classroom in the name of learning and not as a pretext for punishing the student for her race, gender, economic class, religion or political persuasion, the federal courts should not interfere.
Like judges, teachers should not punish or reward people on the basis of inadmissible factors — race, religion, gender, political ideology — but teachers, like judges, must daily decide which arguments are relevant, which computations are correct, which analogies are good or bad, and when it is time to stop writing or talking. Grades must be given by teachers in the classroom, just as cases are decided in the courtroom; and to this end teachers, like judges, must direct the content of speech. Teachers may frequently make [156]*156mistakes in grading and otherwise, just as we do sometimes in deciding cases, but it is the essence of the teacher’s responsibility in the classroom to draw lines and make distinctions — in a word to encourage speech germane to the topic at hand and discourage speech unlikely to shed light on the subject. Teachers therefore must be given broad discretion to give grades and conduct class discussion based on the content of speech. Learning is more vital in the classroom than free speech. All six of Ms. Ramsey’s stated reasons for refusing to allow Brittney to write the paper fall within the broad leeway of teachers to determine the nature of the curriculum and the grades to be awarded to students, even the reasons that may be mistaken. It is not for us to overrule the teacher’s view that the student should learn to write research papers by beginning with a topic other than her own theology. Papers on the transfiguration of Jesus and similar topics may display more faith than rational analysis in the hands of a young student with a strong religious heritage — at least the teacher is entitled to make such a judgment in the classroom.
The case relied upon most heavily by plaintiffs lawyers, Tinker v. Des Moines Indep. Community School Dist., 393 U.S. 503, 89 S.Ct. 733, 21 L.Ed.2d 731 (1969), supports the conclusion that teachers have broad discretion in limiting speech when they are engaged in administering the curriculum. In Tinker, the Court held that a student could wear a black armband to protest the Vietnam War. But, the Court found central to its holding that wearing the armband would not “substantially interfere with the work of the school or impinge on the rights of other students.” Id. at 509, 89 S.Ct. at 738. The Court specifically stated that a school could limit otherwise protected speech if it did so as part of a “prescribed classroom exercise.” Id.
Ms. Ramsey’s justification that the law may prohibit teaching about religion in public schools may be a mistake of law, depending on what she meant. Similarly, her contention that there is only one source for a paper on Jesus Christ may also be mistaken. According to plaintiffs lawyers, these mistakes raise the question of pretext and call forth an attack on the teacher’s integrity.
The lawyer for plaintiff contended at oral argument that all of Ms. Ramsey’s reasons are pretexts for punishing her for her desire to express her thoughts about the life of Jesus. He seemed to believe that the teacher limited plaintiffs speech because of hostility to her religion, and he argued that we should draw an inference of lying from the two “mistaken” reasons. The argument that Ms. Ramsey was untruthful in expressing her real reasons has no basis in the record, as both the School Board and the District Court found, and arises from an unfortunate tendency in lawsuits for parties to cavil at their opponents through unsupported accusations. There is no basis for finding a real dispute of fact about Ms. Ramsey’s motives, and the District Court was therefore correct in disposing of the case on summary judgment.
Accordingly, the judgment of the district court is AFFIRMED.