Me. Justice Black
delivered the opinion of the Court.*
The publishers of more than 1,200 newspapers are members of the Associated Press (AP), a cooperative [4] association incorporated under the Membership Corporation Law of the State of New York. Its business is the collection, assembly and distribution of news. The news it distributes is originally obtained by direct employees of the Association, employees of the member newspapers, and the employees of foreign independent news agencies with which AP has contractual relations, such as the Canadian Press. Distribution of the news is made through interstate channels of communication to the various newspaper members of the Association, who pay for it under an assessment plan which contemplates no profit to AP.
The United States filed a bill in a Federal District Court for an injunction against AP and other defendants charging that they had violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, 26 Stat. 209, in that their acts and conduct constituted (1) a combination and conspiracy in restraint of trade and commerce in news among the states, and (2) an attempt to monopolize a part of that trade.
The heart of the government’s charge was that appellants had by concerted action set up a system of By-Laws which prohibited all AP members from selling news to non-members, and which granted each member powers to block its non-member competitors from membership. These By-Laws, to which all AP members had assented, were, in the context of the admitted facts, charged to be in violation of the Sherman Act. A further charge related to a contract between AP and Canadian Press (a news agency of Canada, similar to AP), under which the Canadian agency and AP obligated themselves to furnish news exclusively to each other. The District Court, composed of three judges, held that the By-Laws unlawfully restricted admission to AP membership, and violated the Sherman Act insofar as the By-Laws’ provisions clothed a member with powers to impose or dispense with conditions upon the admission of his business competitor. [5] Continued observance of these By-Laws was enjoined. The court further held that the Canadian contract was an integral part of the restrictive membership conditions, and enjoined its observance pending abandonment of the membership restrictions. The government’s motion for summary judgment, under Rule 56 of the Rules of Civil Procedure,1 was granted and its prayer for relief was granted in part and denied in part. 52 F. Supp. 362. Both sides have brought the case- to us on direct appeal. 15 U. S. C., § 29; 28 U. S. C., § 345.
At this point, it seems advisable to pass upon the contention of the appellants that there were genuine disputes as to material facts and that the case therefore should have gone to trial. The only assignments of error made by the appellants in No. 57 (Associated Press et al. v. United States) relating to this question are that the court erred “In holding that there was no genuine issue between the parties as to any material fact” and “In not entering summary judgment against the plaintiff.” This latter assignment is based on the premise that summary proceedings were properly utilized in the case. The appellants in No. 58 (Tribune Company et al. v. United States) have one assignment of error to the effect that “The defendants are entitled to a trial of genuine issues of fact unmentioned in the findings of the court but which if found for the defendants would render this holding unwarranted.” None of the appellants has pointed to any [6] disputed facts essential to a determination of the validity or invalidity of the By-Laws and the contract. Admitting the existence of both the By-Laws and the contract, their answers and their affidavits in the summary proceedings defended the legality of the restrictive arrangements, but did not in any instance deny that non-members of AP were denied access to news of AP and of all of its member publishers by reason of the concerted arrangements between the appellants. Nor was it denied that the By-Laws granted AP members powers to impose restrictive conditions upon admission to membership of non-member competitors. The court below in making findings and entering judgment carefully abstained from the consideration of any evidence which might possibly be in dispute. We agree that Rule 56 should be cautiously invoked to the end that parties may always be afforded a trial where there is a bona fide dispute of facts between them. Sartor v. Arkansas Natural Gas Corp., 321 U. S. 620. There was no injury to any of the appellants as a result of the summary proceedings since, for reasons to be indicated, the . restrictive arrangements, which appellants admitted, were sufficient to justify summary action by the court at that stage of the case. In reaching our conclusion on the summary judgment question, we are not unmindful of the argument that newspaper publishers charged with combining cooperatively to violate the Sherman Act are entitled to have a different and more favorable kind of trial procedure than all other persons covered by the Act. No language in the Sherman Act or the summary judgment statute lends support to the suggestion. There is no single element in our traditional insistence upon an equally fair trial for every person from which any such discriminatory trial practice could stem. For equal — not unequal— justice under law is the goal of our society. Our legal system has not established different measures of proof for the trial of cases in which equally intelligent and respon[7] sible defendants are charged with violating the same statutes. Member publishers of AP are engaged in business for profit exactly as are other business men who sell food, steel, aluminum, or anything else people need or want. See International News Service v. Associated Press, 248 U. S. 215, 229, 230. All are alike covered by the Sherman Act. The fact that the publisher handles news while others handle food does not, as we shall later point out, afford the publisher a peculiar constitutional sanctuary in which he can with impunity violate laws regulating his business practices.
Nor is a publisher who engages in business practices made unlawful by the Sherman Act entitled to a partial immunity by reason of the “clear and present danger” doctrine which courts have used to protect freedom to speak, to print, and to worship. That doctrine, as related to this case, provides protection for utterances themselves, so that the printed or spoken word may not be the subject of previous restraint or punishment, unless their expression creates a clear and present danger of bringing about a substantial evil which the government has power to prohibit. Bridges v. California, 314 U. S. 252, 261. Formulated as it was to protect liberty of thought and of expression, it would degrade the clear and present danger doctrine to fashion from it a shield for business publishers who engage in business practices condemned by the Sherman Act. Consequently, we hold that publishers, like all others charged with violating the Sherman Act, are subject to the provisions of the summary judgment statute. And that means that such judgments shall not be rendered against publishers or others where there are genuine disputes of fact on material issues. Accordingly, we treat the cause as did the court below, and will consider the validity of the By-Laws and the contract exclusively on the basis of their terms and the background of facts which the appellants admitted.
[8] To put the issue into proper focus, it becomes necessary at this juncture to examine the By-Laws.
All members must consent to be bound by them. They impose upon members certain duties and restrictions in the conduct of their separate businesses. For a violation of the By-Laws severe disciplinary action may be taken by the Association. The Board of Directors may impose a fine of $1,000.00 or suspend a member and such “action . . . shall be final and conclusive. No member shall have any right to question the same.” 2 The offending member may also be expelled by the members of the corporation for any reason “which in its absolute discretion it shall deem of such a character as to be prejudicial to the interests and welfare of the corporation and its members, or to justify such expulsion. The action of the regular members of the corporation in such regard shall be final and there shall be no right of appeal against or review of such action.”
These By-Laws, for a violation of which members may be thus fined, suspended, or expelled, require that each [9] newspaper member publish the AP news regularly in whole or in part, and that each shall “promptly furnish to the corporation, through its agents or employees, all the news of such member’s district, the area of which shall be determined by the Board of Directors.” 3 All members are prohibited from selling or furnishing their spontaneous news to any agency or publisher except to AP. Other ByLaws require each newspaper member to conduct his or its business in such manner that the news furnished by the corporation shall not be made available to any nonmember in advance of publication. The joint effect of these By-Laws is to block all newspaper non-members from any opportunity to buy news from AP or any of its publisher members. Admission to membership in AP thereby becomes a prerequisite to obtaining AP news or buying news from any one of its more than twelve hundred publishers. The erection of obstacles to the acquisition of membership consequently can make it difficult, if not impossible, for non-members to get any of the news furnished by AP or any of the individual members of this combination of American newspaper publishers.4
The By-Laws provide a very simple and non-burdensome road for admission of a non-competing applicant. The Board of Directors in such case can elect the applicant without payment of money or the imposition of any other onerous terms. In striking contrast are the By-Laws [10] which govern admission of new members who do compete. Historically, as well as presently, applicants who would offer competition to old members have a hard road to travel. This appears from the following facts found by the District Court.
AP originally functioned as an Illinois corporation, and at that time an existing member of the Association had an absolute veto power over the applications of a publisher who was or would be in competition with the old member. The Supreme Court of Illinois held that AP, thus operated, was in restraint of trade. Inter-Ocean Publishing Co. v. Associated Press, 184 Ill. 438, 56 N. E. 822. As a result of this decision, the present Association was organized in New York. Under the new By-Laws, the unqualified veto power of the Illinois AP members was changed into a “right of protest” which, when exercised, prevented the AP directors from electing the applicants as in other cases. The old member’s protest against his competitor’s application could then be overruled only by the affirmative vote of four-fifths of all the members of AP.
In 1931, the By-Laws were amended so as to extend the right of protest to all who had been members for more than 5 years and upon whom no right of protest had been conferred by the 1900 By-Laws. In 1942, after complaints to the Department of Justice had brought about an investigation, the By-Laws were again amended. These ByLaws, presently involved, leave the Board of Directors free to elect new members unless the applicant would compete with old members, and in that event the Board cannot act at all in the absence of consent by the applicant’s member competitor. Should the old member object to admission of his competitor, the application must be referred to a regular or special meeting of the Association. As a prerequisite to election, he must (a) pay to the Association 10% of the total amount of the regular assessments received by it from old members in the same [11] competitive field during the entire period from October 1, 1900 to the first day of the month preceding the date of the election of the applicant,5 (b) relinquish any exclusive rights the applicant may have to any news or news picture services and, when requested to do so by his member competitor in that field, must “require the said- news or news picture services, or any of them, to be furnished to such member or members, upon the same terms as they are made available to the applicant,” and (c) receive a majority vote of the regular members who vote in person or by proxy. These obstacles to membership, and to the purchase of AP news, only existed where there was a competing old member in the same field.
The District Court found that the By-Laws in and of themselves were contracts in restraint of commerce6 in that they contained provisions designed to stifle competition in the newspaper publishing field.7 The court also [12] found that AP’s restrictive By-Laws had hindered and impeded the growth of competing newspapers.8 This latter finding, as to the past effect of the restrictions, is challenged. We are inclined to think that it is supported by undisputed evidence, but we do not stop to labor the point. For the court below found, and we think correctly, that the By-Laws on their face, and without regard to their past effect, constitute restraints of trade. Combinations are no less unlawful because they have not as yet resulted in restraint. An agreement or combination to follow a course of conduct which will necessarily restrain or monopolize a part of trade or commerce may violate the Sherman Act, whether it be “wholly nascent or abortive on the one hand, or successful on the other.” 9 For [13] these reasons the argument, repeated here in various forms, that AP had not yet achieved a complete monopoly is wholly irrelevant. Undisputed evidence did show, however, that its By-Laws had tied the hands of all of its numerous publishers, to the extent that they could not and did not sell any part of their news so that it could reach any of their non-member competitors. In this respect the court did find, and that finding cannot possibly be challenged, that AP’s By-Laws had hindered and restrained the sale of interstate news to non-members who competed with members.
Inability to buy news from the largest news agency, or any one of its multitude of members, can have most serious effects on the publication of competitive newspapers, both those presently published and those which, but for these restrictions, might be published in the future.10 This is illustrated by the District Court’s finding that, in 26 cities of the United States, existing newspapers already have contracts for AP news and the same newspapers have contracts with United Press and International News Service under which new newspapers would be required to pay the contract holders large sums to enter the field.11 The net effect is seriously to limit the opportunity of any new paper to enter these cities. Trade restraints of this character, aimed at the destruction of competition, tend to block the initiative which brings newcomers into a field [14] of business and to frustrate the free enterprise system which it was the purpose of the Sherman Act to protect.12
We need not again pass upon the contention that trade in news carried on among the states is not interstate commerce, Associated Press v. Labor Board, 301 U. S. 103, or that because AP’s activities are cooperative, they fall outside the sphere of business, American Medical Assn. v. United States, 317 U. S. 519, 528. It is significant that when Congress has desired to permit cooperatives to interfere with the competitive system of business, it has done so expressly by legislation.18
Nor can we treat this case as though it merely involved a reporter’s contract to deliver his news reports exclusively to a single newspaper, or an exclusive agreement as to news between two newspapers in different cities. For such trade restraints might well be “reasonable,” and therefore not in violation of the Sherman Act. Standard Oil Co. v. United States, 221 U. S. 1. But however innocent such agreements might be, standing alone, they would assume quite a different aspect if utilized as essential features of a program to hamper or destroy competition. It is in this light that we must view this case.
It has been argued that the restrictive By-Laws should be treated as beyond the prohibitions of the Sherman Act, since the owner of the property can choose his associates and can, as to that which he has produced by his own enterprise and sagacity, efforts or ingenuity, decide for [15] himself whether and to whom to sell or not to sell. While it is true in a very general sense that one can dispose of his property as he pleases, he cannot “go beyond the exercise of this right, and by contracts or combinations, express or implied, unduly hinder or obstruct the free and natural flow of commerce in the channels of interstate trade.” United States v. Bausch & Lomb Co., 321 U. S. 707, 722. The Sherman Act was specifically intended to prohibit independent businesses from becoming “associates” in a common plan which is bound to reduce their competitor’s opportunity to buy or sell the things in which the groups compete. Victory of a member of such a combination over its business rivals achieved by such collective means cannot consistently with the Sherman Act or with practical, everyday knowledge be attributed to individual “enterprise and sagacity”; such hampering of business rivals can only be attributed to that which really makes it possible — the collective power of an unlawful combination. That the object of sale is the creation or product of a man’s ingenuity does not alter this principle. Fashion Originators’ Guild v. Federal Trade Commission, 312 U. S. 457.14 It is obviously fallacious to view the By[16] Laws here in issue as instituting a program to encourage and permit full freedom of sale and disposal of property by its owners. Rather, these publishers have, by concerted arrangements, pooled their power to acquire, to purchase, and to dispose of news reports through the channels of commerce. They have also pooled their economic and news control power and, in exerting that power, have entered into agreements which the District Court found to be “plainly designed in the interest of - preventing competition.”15
[17] It is further contended that since there are other news agencies which sell news, it is not a violation of the Act for an overwhelming majority of American publishers to combine to decline to sell their news to the minority. But the fact that an agreement to restrain trade does not inhibit competition in all of the objects of that trade cannot save it from the condemnation of the Sherman Act.16 It is apparent that the exclusive right to publish news in a given field, furnished by AP and all of its members, gives many newspapers a competitive advantage over their rivals.17 Conversely, a newspaper without AP service is [18] more than likely to be at a competitive disadvantage. The District Court stated that it was to secure this advantage over rivals that the By-Laws existed. It is true that the record shows that some competing papers have gotten along without AP news, but morning newspapers, which control 96% of the total circulation in the United States, have AP news service. And the District Court’s unchallenged finding was that “AP is a vast, intricately reticulated organization, the largest of its kind, gathering news from all over the world, the chief single source of news for the American press, universally agreed to be of great consequence.”
Nevertheless, we are asked to reverse these judgments on the ground that the evidence failed to show that AP reports, which might be attributable to their own “enterprise and sagacity,” are clothed “in the robes of indispensability.” The absence of “indispensability” is said to have been established under the following chain of reasoning: AP has made its news generally available to the people by supplying it to a limited and select group of publishers in the various cities; therefore, it is said, AP and its member publishers have not deprived the reading public of AP news; all local readers have an “adequate access” to AP news, since all they need do in any city to get it is to buy, on whatever terms they can in a protected market, the particular newspaper selected for the public by AP and its members. We reject these contentions. The proposed “indispensability” test would fly in the face of the language of the Sherman Act and all of our previous interpretations of it. Moreover, it would make that law a dead letter in all fields of business, a law which Congress has consistently maintained to be an essential safeguard to the kind of private competitive business economy this country has sought to maintain.
The restraints on trade in news here were no less than those held to fall within the ban of the Sherman Act with [19] reference to combinations to restrain trade outlets in the sale of tiles, Montague & Co. v. Lowry, 193 U. S. 38; or enameled ironware, Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co. v. United States, 226 U. S. 20, 48-49; or lumber, Eastern States Lumber Dealers’ Assn. v. United States, 234 U. S. 600, 611; or women’s clothes, Fashion Originators’ Guild v. Federal Trade Commission, supra; or motion pictures, United States v. Crescent Amusement Co., 323 U. S. 173. Here as in the Fashion Originators’ Guild case, supra, 465, “the combination is in reality an extra-governmental agency, which prescribes rules for the regulation and restraint of interstate commerce, and provides extra-judicial tribunals for determination and punishment of violations, and thus ‘trenches upon the power of the national legislature and violates the statute.’ Addyston Pipe & Steel Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 211, 242.” By the restrictive ByLaws each of the publishers in the combination has, in effect, “surrendered himself completely to the control of the association,” Anderson v. Shipowners Assn., 272 U. S. 359, 362, in respect to the disposition of news in interstate commerce. Therefore this contractual restraint of interstate trade, “designed in the interest of preventing competition,” cannot be one of the “normal and usual agreements in aid of trade and commerce which may be found not to be within the [Sherman] Act . . .” Eastern States Lumber Dealers’ Assn. v. United States, supra, 612, 613. It is further said that we reach our conclusion by application of the “public utility” concept to the newspaper business. This is not correct. We merely hold that arrangements or combinations designed to stifle competition cannot be immunized by adopting a membership device accomplishing that purpose.
Finally, the argument is made that to apply the Sherman Act to this association of publishers constitutes an abridgment of the freedom of the press guaranteed by the First Amendment. Perhaps it would be a sufficient answer to [20] this contention to refer to the decisions of this Court in Associated Press v. Labor Board, supra, and Indiana Parmer’s Guide Co. v. Prairie Farmer Co., 293 U. S. 268. It would be strange indeed, however, if the grave concern for freedom of the press which prompted adoption of the First Amendment should be read as a command that the government was without power to protect that freedom. The First Amendment, far from providing an argument against application of the Sherman Act, here provides powerful reasons to the contrary. That Amendment rests on the assumption that the widest possible dissemination of information from diverse and antagonistic sources is essential to the welfare of the public, that a free press is a condition of a free society. Surely a command that the government itself shall not impede the free flow of ideas does not afford non-governmental combinations a refuge if they impose restraints upon that constitutionally guaranteed freedom. Freedom to publish means freedom for all and not for some. Freedom to publish is guaranteed by the Constitution, but freedom to combine to keep others from publishing is not. Freedom of the press from governmental interference under the First Amendment does not sanction repression of that freedom by private interests.18 The First Amendment affords not the slightest support for the contention that a combination to restrain trade in news and views has any constitutional immunity.
[21] We now turn to the decree. Having adjudged the ByLaws imposing restrictions on applications for membership to be illegal, the court enjoined the defendants from observing them, or agreeing to observe any new or amended By-Law having a like purpose or effect. It further provided that nothing in the decree should prevent the adoption by the Associated Press of new or amended By-Laws “which will restrict admission, provided that members in the same city and in the same ‘field’ (morning, evening or Sunday), as an applicant publishing a newspaper in the United States of America or its Territories, shall not have power to impose, or dispense with, any conditions upon his admission and that the By-Laws shall affirmatively declare that the effect of admission upon the ability of such applicant to compete with members in the same city and ‘field’ shall not be taken into consideration in passing upon his application.” Some of appellants argue that this decree is vague and indefinite. They argue that it will be impossible for the Association to know whether or not its members took into consideration the competitive situation in passing upon applications for membership. We cannot agree that the decree is ambiguous. We assume, with the court below, that AP will faithfully carry out its purpose. Interpreting the decree to mean that AP news is to be furnished to competitors of old members without discrimination through By-Laws controlling membership, or otherwise, we approve it.
The court also held that, taken in connection with the restrictive clauses on admissions to membership, those sections of the By-Laws violated the Sherman Act which prevented service of AP news to non-members and prevented AP members from furnishing spontaneous news to anyone not a member of the Association. It held the agreement between AP and the Canadian Press, under which AP secured exclusive right to receive the news re[22] ports of the Canadian Press and its members, was also, when taken in connection with the restrictive membership agreements, in violation of the Sherman Act. It declined to hold these By-Laws and the agreement with Canadian Press illegal standing by themselves. It consequently enjoined their observance temporarily, pending AP’s obedience to the decree enjoining the restrictive membership agreements. The court’s findings justified this phase of its injunction. United States v. Bausch & Lomb Co., supra, 724.
The government has appealed from the court’s refusal to hold each of these last-mentioned items a violation of the Sherman Act standing alone. The government also asks that the decree of the District Court be broadened, so as permanently to enjoin observance of the Canadian Press contract and all the challenged By-Laws. It also suggests certain specific terms which should be added to the decree to assure the complete eradication of AP’s discrimination against competitors of its members.
The fashioning of a decree in an antitrust case in such way as to prevent future violations and eradicate existing evils, is a matter which rests largely in the discretion of the court. United States v. Crescent Amusement Co., supra. A full exploration of facts is usually necessary in order properly to draw such a decree. In this case the government chose to present its case on the narrow issues which were within the realm of undisputed facts. In the situation thus narrowly presented we are unable to say that the court’s decree should have gone further than it did. Furthermore, the District Court retained the cause for such further proceedings as might become necessary. If, as the government apprehends, the decree in its present form should not prove adequate to prevent further discriminatory trade restraints against non-member newspapers, the court’s retention of the cause will enable it [23] to take the necessary measures to cause the decree to be fully and faithfully carried out.
The judgment in all three cases is
Affirmed.
Mr. Justice Jackson took no part in the consideration or decision of this case.
Furthermore, the contracts involved in the Christie case were “not relied on as a cause of action.” This Court found that those contracts did not show a purpose to deny sale of the statistics to non-members of the Board of Trade. Whether such a contractual restriction would have violated the Sherman Act, the Court refused to decide. In the instant case, as we have pointed out, both the individual publishers and AP have bound themselves to furnish their news to each other and to deny it to all others. Two later cases repeated the statement as to the right of one who gathered statistics to sell them on conditions. Neither of them, however, decided that such restrictive arrangements as appear in the instant case would not constitute unreasonable restraints of trade. Moore v. N. Y. Cotton Exchange, 270 U. S. 593; Hunt v. N. Y. Cotton Exchange, 205 U. S. 322.
This Court said in Paramount Famous Corp. v. United States, supra, 44, “In order to establish violation of the Sherman Act it is not necessary to show that the challenged arrangement suppresses all competition between the parties or that the parties themselves are discontented with the arrangement. The interest of the public in the preservation of competition is the primary consideration.” Again, in Fashion Originators’ Guild v. Federal Trade Commission, supra, 466, we said, “Nor is it determinative in considering the policy of the Sherman Act that petitioners may not yet have achieved a complete monopoly. For ‘it is sufficient if it really tends to that end and to deprive the public of the advantages which flow from free competition.’ United States v. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U. S. 1, 16; Addyston Pipe & Steel Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 211, 237.” See also Apex Hosiery Co. v. Leader, 310 U. S. 469, 485.