Jack Holt, Jr., Chief Justice.
This case involves the constitutionality of Ark. Code Ann. § T6-92-108 (1987), which relates to the legislative limitation of expenses and fees imposed upon court-appointed attorneys for indigent clients accused of crime. We find, under the circumstances of this case, the expense and fee “caps” contained in section 16-92-108 to be unconstitutional and that the contempt citation should be vacated. We remand to the trial court for proceedings consistent with this opinion.
On November 30,1990, the appellant, Suzan Jernigan, was charged by information with the capital murder of her husband, J.B. Goff, and mother, Patricia L. Dunn. Jernigan was determined to be indigent, and the appellants, Blair Arnold and Thomas Allen, were appointed as her attorneys by the court on December 11, 1990. Both Messrs. Arnold and Allen objected to their appointments; however, they represented Jernigan during her arraignment. Trial date was subsequently set for April 1, 1991.
On March 14, 1991, Messrs. Arnold and Allen advised the trial court that they were refusing to proceed because they could not provide Jernigan with effective assistance of counsel as they were reluctant to incur overhead expenses while representing her, particularly in light of the fact that the trial court had refused to reimburse them for their out-of-pocket expenses or provide attorney’s fees and had refused to supply Jernigan with funds with which to hire the necessary expert and investigatory assistance. Counsel were found to be in contempt of court, fined $1,000.00, and ordered to appear before the court on March 29, 1991, for further proceedings.
The appellants filed a notice of appeal, as well as a petition for a temporary writ of prohibition and permanent writs of prohibition, mandamus, and certiorari.
In Ellis v. State, 302 Ark. 597, 791 S.W.2d 370 (1990), we noted that appealability is controlled by Ark. R. App. P. 2(a), which requires a final judgment or decree or one that, in effect, determines the action and prevents a judgment from which an appeal might be taken or discontinues the action. Jernigan’s appeal is premature as there has been no final, appealable order for this court to review. Her petitions for other relief are also inappropriate at this juncture and will not be considered.
We do, however, address the following arguments promulgated by Messrs. Arnold and Allen as an appeal from their contempt charge predicated upon their refusal to proceed as Jernigan’s court-appointed counsel: 1) the fee and expense limitations contained in section 16-92-108 violate their right to due process and just compensation, and 2) the present system of appointing attorneys in the State of Arkansas violates their right to equal protection.
Messrs. Arnold and Allen also assert 3) that the limitation of expenses and attorneys’ fees creates an inherent conflict of interest between the indigent and the court-appointed attorney, and 4) that the limitation of expenses and fees by the General Assembly inherently, and in its application, invades the judicial branch of state government. In light of our analysis of the first two arguments, we need not address the latter two points on appeal.
/. DUE PROCESS AND JUST COMPENSATION
Messrs. Arnold and Allen initially argue that section 16-92-108 violates their right to due process and just compensation.
We have held that there is a strong presumption of constitutionality attendant to every legislative enactment, and all doubt concerning it must be resolved in favor of constitutionality; if it is possible for the courts to so construe an act that it will meet the test of constitutionality, we not only may, but should and will do so. Further, the party challenging a statute has the burden of proving it unconstitutional. Holland v. Willis, 293 Ark. 518, 739 S.W.2d 529 (1987).
We have previously addressed the constitutionality of Ark. Stat. Ann. § 43-2419 (Repl. 1977) (currently section 16-92-108) in State v. Ruiz, 269 Ark. 331, 602 S.W.2d 625 (1980), where the State appealed from a circuit court decision awarding reasonable attorneys’ fees to attorneys representing indigent criminal defendants and holding the statute limiting such payments to be unconstitutional. In that case, we held that the statute limiting payments to attorneys representing criminal defendants to $100 for investigation expenses and $350 for attorneys’ fees did not violate the provision in the Arkansas Constitution providing for the separation of powers, and the trial court was bound by the statute.
At that time, we based our decision on a quick and short reference to the historical practice of attorneys representing indigents for little or no fee and on the professional oath an attorney swears to upon admittance to the Arkansas Bar, which oath reads in pertinent part as follows:
I will never reject, from any consideration personal to myself, the cause of the defenseless or oppressed, or delay any man’s cause for lucre or malice. SO HELP ME GOD.
We also stated in obiter dictum-.
It has been argued in another case that requiring an attorney to furnish services for little or no fee is a taking of property in violation of the due process clause of the United States Constitution. This argument was rejected in the case of United States v. Dillon, 346 F.2d 633 (9th Cir. 1965), cert. denied, 382 U.S. 978 (1966). Finding no common law or statutory or constitutional authority establishing payment of attorneys fees, we are left only the sources provided by the legislature. The only other source is the services being furnished by the attorneys themselves. Lawyers clearly have an obligation to represent indigents upon court orders and to do so for existing statutory compensation or for no remuneration at all.
(Citation omitted.)
Subsequent to our decision in State v. Ruiz, supra, other states have addressed the constitutionality of comparable fee cap statutes and found them to be unconstitutional. DeLisio v. Alaska Superior Court, 740 P.2d 437 (Alaska 1987); State ex rel. Stephan v. Smith, 242 Kan. 336, 747 P.2d 816 (1987); and Makemson v. Martin County, 491 So.2d 1109 (Fla. 1986).
In Coulter v. State, 304 Ark. 527, 804 S.W.2d 348 (1991), we were presented with the issues that we now address but were unable to directly analyze at that time because the defendant in that case had neither shown nor argued that he had suffered any specific prejudice resulting from the fee cap statute. See Goldsmith v. State, 301 Ark. 107, 782 S.W.2d 361 (1990); Berna v. State, 282 Ark. 563, 670 S.W.2d 434 (1984). We noted, however, our concern and gave notice that we would reconsider our earlier decisions on the issue in an appropriate case and even outlined pertinent cases from other jurisdictions and their rationale that have dealt with the question. Coulter v. State, 304 at 542, 804 at 356; see also Pickens v. State, 301 Ark. 244, 783 S.W.2d 341 (1990). Rather than discuss these cases again, we single out and attach primary significance to State ex rel. Stephan v.
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Jack Holt, Jr., Chief Justice.
This case involves the constitutionality of Ark. Code Ann. § T6-92-108 (1987), which relates to the legislative limitation of expenses and fees imposed upon court-appointed attorneys for indigent clients accused of crime. We find, under the circumstances of this case, the expense and fee “caps” contained in section 16-92-108 to be unconstitutional and that the contempt citation should be vacated. We remand to the trial court for proceedings consistent with this opinion.
On November 30,1990, the appellant, Suzan Jernigan, was charged by information with the capital murder of her husband, J.B. Goff, and mother, Patricia L. Dunn. Jernigan was determined to be indigent, and the appellants, Blair Arnold and Thomas Allen, were appointed as her attorneys by the court on December 11, 1990. Both Messrs. Arnold and Allen objected to their appointments; however, they represented Jernigan during her arraignment. Trial date was subsequently set for April 1, 1991.
On March 14, 1991, Messrs. Arnold and Allen advised the trial court that they were refusing to proceed because they could not provide Jernigan with effective assistance of counsel as they were reluctant to incur overhead expenses while representing her, particularly in light of the fact that the trial court had refused to reimburse them for their out-of-pocket expenses or provide attorney’s fees and had refused to supply Jernigan with funds with which to hire the necessary expert and investigatory assistance. Counsel were found to be in contempt of court, fined $1,000.00, and ordered to appear before the court on March 29, 1991, for further proceedings.
The appellants filed a notice of appeal, as well as a petition for a temporary writ of prohibition and permanent writs of prohibition, mandamus, and certiorari.
In Ellis v. State, 302 Ark. 597, 791 S.W.2d 370 (1990), we noted that appealability is controlled by Ark. R. App. P. 2(a), which requires a final judgment or decree or one that, in effect, determines the action and prevents a judgment from which an appeal might be taken or discontinues the action. Jernigan’s appeal is premature as there has been no final, appealable order for this court to review. Her petitions for other relief are also inappropriate at this juncture and will not be considered.
We do, however, address the following arguments promulgated by Messrs. Arnold and Allen as an appeal from their contempt charge predicated upon their refusal to proceed as Jernigan’s court-appointed counsel: 1) the fee and expense limitations contained in section 16-92-108 violate their right to due process and just compensation, and 2) the present system of appointing attorneys in the State of Arkansas violates their right to equal protection.
Messrs. Arnold and Allen also assert 3) that the limitation of expenses and attorneys’ fees creates an inherent conflict of interest between the indigent and the court-appointed attorney, and 4) that the limitation of expenses and fees by the General Assembly inherently, and in its application, invades the judicial branch of state government. In light of our analysis of the first two arguments, we need not address the latter two points on appeal.
/. DUE PROCESS AND JUST COMPENSATION
Messrs. Arnold and Allen initially argue that section 16-92-108 violates their right to due process and just compensation.
We have held that there is a strong presumption of constitutionality attendant to every legislative enactment, and all doubt concerning it must be resolved in favor of constitutionality; if it is possible for the courts to so construe an act that it will meet the test of constitutionality, we not only may, but should and will do so. Further, the party challenging a statute has the burden of proving it unconstitutional. Holland v. Willis, 293 Ark. 518, 739 S.W.2d 529 (1987).
We have previously addressed the constitutionality of Ark. Stat. Ann. § 43-2419 (Repl. 1977) (currently section 16-92-108) in State v. Ruiz, 269 Ark. 331, 602 S.W.2d 625 (1980), where the State appealed from a circuit court decision awarding reasonable attorneys’ fees to attorneys representing indigent criminal defendants and holding the statute limiting such payments to be unconstitutional. In that case, we held that the statute limiting payments to attorneys representing criminal defendants to $100 for investigation expenses and $350 for attorneys’ fees did not violate the provision in the Arkansas Constitution providing for the separation of powers, and the trial court was bound by the statute.
At that time, we based our decision on a quick and short reference to the historical practice of attorneys representing indigents for little or no fee and on the professional oath an attorney swears to upon admittance to the Arkansas Bar, which oath reads in pertinent part as follows:
I will never reject, from any consideration personal to myself, the cause of the defenseless or oppressed, or delay any man’s cause for lucre or malice. SO HELP ME GOD.
We also stated in obiter dictum-.
It has been argued in another case that requiring an attorney to furnish services for little or no fee is a taking of property in violation of the due process clause of the United States Constitution. This argument was rejected in the case of United States v. Dillon, 346 F.2d 633 (9th Cir. 1965), cert. denied, 382 U.S. 978 (1966). Finding no common law or statutory or constitutional authority establishing payment of attorneys fees, we are left only the sources provided by the legislature. The only other source is the services being furnished by the attorneys themselves. Lawyers clearly have an obligation to represent indigents upon court orders and to do so for existing statutory compensation or for no remuneration at all.
(Citation omitted.)
Subsequent to our decision in State v. Ruiz, supra, other states have addressed the constitutionality of comparable fee cap statutes and found them to be unconstitutional. DeLisio v. Alaska Superior Court, 740 P.2d 437 (Alaska 1987); State ex rel. Stephan v. Smith, 242 Kan. 336, 747 P.2d 816 (1987); and Makemson v. Martin County, 491 So.2d 1109 (Fla. 1986).
In Coulter v. State, 304 Ark. 527, 804 S.W.2d 348 (1991), we were presented with the issues that we now address but were unable to directly analyze at that time because the defendant in that case had neither shown nor argued that he had suffered any specific prejudice resulting from the fee cap statute. See Goldsmith v. State, 301 Ark. 107, 782 S.W.2d 361 (1990); Berna v. State, 282 Ark. 563, 670 S.W.2d 434 (1984). We noted, however, our concern and gave notice that we would reconsider our earlier decisions on the issue in an appropriate case and even outlined pertinent cases from other jurisdictions and their rationale that have dealt with the question. Coulter v. State, 304 at 542, 804 at 356; see also Pickens v. State, 301 Ark. 244, 783 S.W.2d 341 (1990). Rather than discuss these cases again, we single out and attach primary significance to State ex rel. Stephan v. Smith, supra, as the Supreme Court of Kansas commented at length upon the historical argument of legal representation for little or no fee:
. . . the tradition of requiring pro bono work of attorneys originated in common-law England where attorneys who were expected to provide such representation also enjoyed special rights and privileges. They were the sergeants-at-law, the elite among all English lawyers. They had special practice privileges, they commanded higher fees, and judges were selected exclusively from their ranks. They were actually public officers and were sometimes paid by the government. As officers of the court, English lawyers were exempt from suit, military service, and other compelled public service. Their modern American counterparts enjoy no such special privileges. The distinction and its consequences were recognized by the Indiana Supreme Court as early as 1854 [in Webb v. Baird, 6 Ind. 13, 17 (1854)]:
The legal profession having been thus properly stripped of all its odious distinctions and peculiar emoluments, the public can no longer justly demand of that class of citizens any gratuitous services which would not be demandable of every other class. To the attorney, his profession is his means of livelihood. His legal knowledge is his capital stock. His professional services are no more at the mercy of the public, as to remuneration, than are the goods of the merchant, or the crops of the farmer, or the wares of the mechanic. The law which requires gratuitous services from a particular class, in effect imposes a tax to that extent upon such class — clearly in violation of the fundamental law, which provides for a uniform and equal rate of assessment and taxation upon all the citizens.
(Citations omitted.)
The court in Webb noted that an attorney is under no obligation, honorary or otherwise, to volunteer his services; it devolves as much on any other citizen of equal wealth to employ counsel in the defense as on the attorney to render services gratuitously.
The Kansas court concluded that:
Attorneys generally have an ethical obligation to provide pro bono services for indigents. Such services may only be provided by attorneys. The individual attorney has a right to make a living. Indigent defendants, on the other hand, have the right to the effective assistance of counsel. The obligation to provide counsel for indigent defendants is that of the State, not of the individual attorney. The adjustment of these rights and obligations presents the primary difficulty of the present statutory system. The burden must be shared equally by those similarly situated. In the final analysis, it is a matter of reasonableness.
Following its historical analysis, the court analyzed the fifth amendment issue before them as follows:
Whether a violation of due process has occurred depends upon whether “property” has been taken and upon what kind of “process” is due. ... An attorney’s advice and counsel is indeed his or her stock in trade. Moreover, when attorneys are required to donate funds out-of-pocket to subsidize a defense, they are deprived of property in the form of money. . . .
The term due process refers primarily to the methods by which the law is enforced; however the term has no fixed technical concept unrelated to time, place and circumstances. In Hannah v. Larche, 363 U.S. 420 (1960), this comment was made:
“ ‘ “Due process” is an elusive concept. Its exact boundaries are undefinable, and its content varies according to specific factual contexts. . . . Whether the Constitution requires that a particular right obtain in a specific proceeding depends upon a complexity of factors. The nature of the alleged right involved, the nature of the proceeding, and the possible burden on that proceeding are all considerations which must be taken into account.’ ” Smith v. Miller, 213 Kan. 1, 514 P.2d 377 (1973).
Pertinent provisions of our constitution are subject to the same analysis. Article 2, § 22 of the Arkansas Constitution provides that private property may not be appropriated for public use without just compensation. Johnson v. Wylie, 284 Ark. 76, 679 S.W.2d 198 (1984); see also U.S. Const, amend. V (“No person shall... be deprived of property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.”)
Focusing further on the rulings of the Kansas Court, we cannot escape the clear logic underlying their finding that although their statute, on its face, did not violate due process yet, when applied to the facts before them, the fee and expense cap limits were unconstitutional. The Kansas fee and expense cap limitations are comparable to limitations we face in section 16-92-108. The Kansas Court aptly noted:
Attorneys, like the members of any other profession, have for sale to the public an intangible — their time, advice, and counsel. Architects, engineers, physicians, and attorneys ordinarily purvey little or nothing which is tangible. It is their learned and reflective thought, their recommendations, suggestions, directions, plans, diagnoses, and advice that is of value to the persons they serve. It is not the price of the paper on which is written the plan for a building or a bridge, the prescription for medication, or the will, contract, or pleading which is of substantial value to the client; it is the professional knowledge which goes into the practice of the profession which is valuable.
Attorneys are licensed by the state to practice their profession; but so are other professionals, such as architects, engineers, and physicians. One who practices his profession has a property interest in that pursuit which may not be taken from him or her at the whim of the government without due process. . . .
Attorneys make their living through their services. Their services are the means of their livelihood. We do not expect architects to design public buildings, engineers to design highways, dikes, and bridges, or physicians to treat the indigent without compensation. When attorneys’ services are conscripted for the public good, such a taking is akin to the taking of food or clothing from a merchant or the taking of services from any other professional for the public good. And certainly when attorneys are required to donate funds out-of-pocket to subsidize a defense for an indigent defendant, the attorneys are deprived of property in the form of money. We conclude that attorneys’ services are property, and are thus subject to Fifth Amendment protection. [Emphasis added.]
When the attorney is required to advance expense funds out-of-pocket for an indigent, without full reimbursement, the system violates the Fifth Amendment. Similarly, when an attorney is required to spend an unreasonable amount of time on indigent appointments so that there is genuine and substantial interference with his or her private practice, the system violates the Fifth Amendment.
State ex rel. Stephan v. Smith, 242 Kan. at 369, 747 P.2d at 841.
Like the question before the Kansas court, the core question before us is whether the services of an attorney are a species of property subject to Fifth Amendment protection. The answer is yes.
Unfortunately, we have perpetuated, throughout the years, a system of appointment without just compensation in many instances that is long past due for correction. The only proper and permissible course for us to follow is simply to give effect to the plain language of our constitution. City of Hot Springs v. Creviston, 288 Ark. 286, 705 S.W.2d 415 (1986). In doing so, we declare that even if the rationale in State v. Ruiz, supra, was correct when it was decided, and we have strong reservations in this regard, the practice of criminal law has changed, as have the times. Arkansas has delayed in confronting the realities of contemporary criminal defense practice, particularly in the area of capital litigation, even as the concept of what constitutes due process has changed. New scientific developments and an increased awareness in areas of social consciousness have served to drastically raise the complexity of criminal litigation. As a result, our trial courts must appoint highly trained and skilled counsel if indigents are to be afforded their constitutionally mandated effective assistance of counsel.
In Family Div. Trial Lawyers v. Moultrie, 725 F.2d 695 (D.C. Cir. 1984), the court noted:
As the scope of the constitutionally mandated right to counsel has expanded and the concomitant burden of providing pro bono representation imposed on attorneys has grown, several state courts have recognized that at some point the burden on particular attorneys could become so excessive that it might rise to the level of a “taking” of property. See, e.g., People ex rel. Conn. v. Randolph, 35 Ill.2d 24, 219 N.E.2d 337 (1966); Bias v. State, 568 P.2d 1269 (Okla. 1977); State ex rel. Partain v. Oakley, 227 S.E.2d 314 (W.Va. 1976); . . .
In this case, the burden imposed on Messrs. Arnold and Allen is excessive to the extent that it constitutes a “taking” of their property and to limit them to a mere award of $ 1,000.00 for their work and skills is constitutionally unacceptable.
II. EQUAL PROTECTION
Messrs. Arnold and Allen also argue that the present system of appointing attorneys in this state violates their right to equal protection. We agree.
In determining whether a classification denies the equal protection of the laws, we, as an appellate court, must determine if it has a rational basis and is reasonably related to the purpose of the statute; a classification must be reasonable, not arbitrary, and must rest upon some ground of difference having a fair and substantial relation to the object of the legislation so that all persons similarly circumstanced shall be treated alike. The factors we look at to determine whether a law is violative of equal protection are: 1) the character of the classification, 2) the individual interests asserted in support of the classification, and 3) the governmental interests asserted in support of the classification. Holland v. Willis, supra.
Messrs. Arnold and Allen contend that lawyers, as a class, are given less protection than other classes of professional citizens inasmuch as they are required to financially subsidize the State’s responsibility of indigent representation.
Under our present system of indigent representation, we note that 26 counties have exercised their ability under legislative authority to initiate a public defender system, and 49 counties continue to utilize the traditional system of attorney appointment. Thus, an attorney’s geographic location will initially determine whether his services will be commandeered for the public good or whether the public will fund the defense through its authorized legislative system. See Ark. Code Ann. §§ 16-87-101 to -110 (1987). Additionally, in those counties that continue to appoint attorneys, an attorney’s substantive area of practice and expertise will further define his eligibility for appointment. Consequently, our system of indigent representation is predicated upon an unequal distribution of the public’s obligation to a subclass of attorneys based on where an attorney lives and on an attorney’s ability to provide effective assistance of counsel.
The State responds by pointing out that only lawyers have the requisite license to practice law, and the legislature may take one step at a time when addressing complex problems. See Bowen v. Owens, 476 U.S. 340, 347 (1986) (quoting Williamson v. Lee Optical Co., 348 U.S. 483, 489 (1955)).
However, these arguments are not answers to the problem. Even though the legislature may take “one step at a time” in addressing complex problems, it does not have license to infringe upon the guaranteed constitutional rights of the citizens it represents. The untoward effects of the cap limitations fall unequally upon a select few lawyers, who serve under appointment, and result in a violation of lawyers’ rights to equal protection.
Given these divergent positions and competing interests, we cannot say that the classifications have a rational basis or are reasonably related to the purpose of the statute. Again, we must find that section 16-92-108 does not pass constitutional muster as applied.
ATTORNEYS’ FEES AND COSTS
Inasmuch as we have declared an attorney’s services to be his property, the taking of which is subject to just compensation, it necessarily follows that we look to section 16-92-108 to determine whether or not the fees that are “capped” at $ 1,000.00 in this case will reasonably compensate them for services rendered or to be rendered. The answer is obvious. This limitation for such serious, complex criminal litigation is wholly inadequate. As a result, it becomes our duty to assess an appropriate measure of compensation for the taking of these attorneys’ property.
In awarding fees to Messrs. Arnold and Allen for reasonably expended services, we do not mean that the trial court must simply award fees based on their customary hourly charges or fixed fees for services in criminal cases of this nature. To the contrary, the trial court should determine fees that are considered “just.” In Chrisco v. Sun. Indus., Inc., 304 Ark. 227, 800 S.W.2d 717 (1990), we recognized various factors to be considered by a trial court in making its decision, on an award of attorneys’ fees, including the experience and ability of the attorney, the time and labor required to perform the legal service properly, the novelty and difficulty of the issues involved, the fee customarily charged in the locality for similar legal services, the time limitations imposed upon the client’s defense or by the circumstances, and the likelihood, if apparent to the court, that the acceptance of the particular employment will preclude other employment by the lawyer.
Ironically, the criterion we announced in Chrisco v. Sun, supra, is well grounded in express declarations of the Arkansas General Assembly as to appropriate payment for court-appointed counsel in criminal cases. In Act 125 of 1971, the Arkansas General Assembly expressed its concern about compensating counsel by enacting its second piece of legislation pertaining to indigents and court-appointed attorneys, in which it stated: “. . . It is essential that counsel be furnished to him [the indigent] and that said counsel be compensated for his time, out of pocket expenses and services.” Additionally, even though section 16-92-108 establishes a fee cap of $1,000.00 in the defense of a capital murder charge, the General Assembly declared that:
(a) Whenever legal counsel is appointed by any court of this state to represent indigent persons accused of crimes, whether misdemeanors or felonies, the court shall determine the amount of the fee to be paid the attorney and an amount for a reasonable and adequate investigation of the charges made against the indigent and shall issue an order for the payment thereof.
❖ * * *
(b) (3) The attorney’s fees provided for by this section shall be based upon the experience of the attorney and the time and effort devoted by him in the preparation and trial of the indigent, commensurate with fees paid other attorneys in the community for similar services.’’'’
(Emphasis added.)
The factors as enumerated in Chrisco v. Sun, supra, and as expressed by our General Assembly, are instructive and should be conservatively applied here.
Further, the statutory limitation of expenses, in the sum of $100.00, does not provide the necessary funds for Jernigan’s defense, and, here again, it would constitute a taking to force Messrs. Arnold and Allen to finance these expenses out of their own pockets in order to provide her effective assistance of counsel. We do not suggest that the trial court give carte blanche authority to counsel to incur expenses, but rather it should be within the province of the sound judgment of the trial court to approve such reasonable expenses as are plainly necessary for the defendant to have her day in court and to permit counsel to fairly and adequately present her case.
We reverse and remand to the trial court with directions to vacate its finding of contempt on the part of Messrs. Arnold and Allen and for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
Dudley, Hays, Newbern, and Glaze, JJ., concur.