ANDREWS, Ch. J.
Section 168 of the Penal Code makes it a misdemeanor for two or more persons to conspire (sub. 6) “to-commit any act injurious to the public health, to public morals, or to trade or commerce, or for the perversion or obstruction of public justice, or the due administration of the law.” The ■Revised Statutes contained a similar provision. 2 Rev. St. 692, § 8. sub. 6.
The fact that the defendants subscribed the constitution and by-laws of the “Lockport Coal Exchange,” and participated in its management, was not controverted on the trial. Nor was there any dispute that the object of the organization was to prevent competition in the price of coal among the retail dealers, acting as the “Lockport Coal Exchange,” by constituting the-exchange the sole authority to fix the price which should be charged by the members individually- for coal sold by them. Nor is there any dispute that in pursuance of the plan the exchange did proceed to fix the price of coal, and that the parties-to the agreement were thereafter governed thereby in making.
sales to their customers. 2sior is it questioned that the price first established was seventy-five cents in advance of the then market price, and that there was afterwards a still further advance.
The defendants gave evidence tending to show (and of this, there was no contradiction), that before and at the time of the organization of the exchiangethe successive competition between-the dealers in coal in Lockport had reduced the price below the actual cost of the coal and the expense of handling, and that the business was carried on at a Loss. It was not shown, that the prices of coal, fixed from time to time by the exchange,, were excessive or oppressive, or were more than sufficient to. afford a fair remuneration to the dealers.
The trial judge submitted the case to the jury upon the proposition that if the .defendants entered into the organization-agreement for the purpose of controlling the price of coal and managing the business of the sale of coal so as to prevent competition in price between -the members of the exchange, the-agreement was illegal, and that if the jury found that this, was their intent, and that the price of coal was raised in pursuance of the agreement to effect its object, the crime of conspiracy was' established. The correctness of this proposition, is the main question in the case. !
If the confederacy into which the defendants entered was an act “injurious to trade or commerce,” irrespective of its results, in the particular -case, then there is no difficulty in maintaining the .conviction. If a combination between independent dealers to prevent competition between themselves in the sale of an •article of prime necessity is, in the contemplation of the law,, an act inimical to trade or commerce, whatever may be done-under and in pursuance of it, and although the object of the combination is merely the due protection of the parties to it against ruinous rivalry, and no attempt is made to charge undu-e- •or excessive prices, then the indictment was sustained by proof. On the other hand, if the validity and legality of an agreement having for its object the prevention of competition between dealers in the same commodity depend upon what may be done-under the agreement, and is to be adjudged valid or invalid according to the fact whether it is made the means for raising:
the price of a commodity beyond its normal and reasonable value, then it would be difficult to sustain this conviction, for it affirmatively appears that the price fixed for coal by the exchange did not exceed what would afford a reasonable profit to the dealers. It was said by Parker, Oh. J. (Lord Macclesfield), in his celebrated judgment in Mitchel v. Reynolds, 1 P. .Wms. 181, which was the case of a bond taken from the defendant on the sale by him to the plaintiff of a lease of a bakehouse, claimed to be void as in restraint of trade, “in all restraints of trade, where nothing more appears, the law presumes them bad; but if the circumstances are set forth, that presumption is excluded; the court is to judge of these circumstances, and to determine accordingly; and if upon them it appears to be a just and honest contract, it ought to be maintained.”
If this agreement and what was done under it is to be judged as an isolated transaction, and its rigbtfulnesis is to be determined alone upon the peculiar circumstances, whether it did or did not produce an injury to trade, we might well hesitate. The obtaining by dealers of a fair and reasonable price for what they sell does not seem to contravene public policy, or to work an injury to individuals. On the contrary, the general interests are promoted by activity in trade, which cannot permanently exist without reasonable encouragement to • those engaged' in it. Producers, consumers and laborers are alike benefited by healthful conditions of business.
But the question here does not turn on the point whether the agreement between the retail dealers in coal did, as matter of fact, result in injury to the public or to the community in Lookport. The question is, was the agreement one, in view of what might have been done under it, and the fact that it was an agreemenltthe effect of which was to prevent competition among the coal dealers, upon which the law affixes the brand of condemnation, and which it will not permit.
It has hitherto1 been an accepted maxim in political economy that “competition is the life of trade.” The court’s have acted upon and adopted this maxim in passing upon the validity of agreements the design of which was to prevent competition intrude, and have held such agreements to be invalid. It is to be-
noticed that the organization of the “exchange” was of the most formal character. The articles bound all who became members to conform to the regulations. The observance of such regulations by the members was enforced by penalties and forfeit-1 ures. A member accused by the secretary of having violated any provision of the constitution or by-laws was required to purge himself by affidavit, although evidence to sustain the charge should be lacking.
The shippers of coal were to be notified in case of persistent default by the member that “he is not entitled to the privileges of membership in the exchange.” ¡No member was permitted to sell coal at less than the price fixed by the exchange.
The organization was a carefully devised scheme to prevent competition in the price of coal among the retail dealers, and the moral and material power of the combination afforded a reasonable guaranty that others would not engage in the business in Loekport except in conformity with the rules of the exchange.
The cases of Hooker v. Vandewater, 4 Den. 349, and Stanton v. Allen, 5 id. 434, are, we think, decisive authorities in support of the judgment'in this case. They were oases of combinations between transportation lines on the canals to maintain rates for the carriage of goods and passengers, and the court, in those cases, held that the agreements were void, on the ground that they were agreements to prevent competition, and the doctrine was affirmed that agreements having that purpose, made between independent lines of transportation, were, in law, agreements injurious to trade. In those cases it was not shown that the rates fixed were excessive.
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ANDREWS, Ch. J.
Section 168 of the Penal Code makes it a misdemeanor for two or more persons to conspire (sub. 6) “to-commit any act injurious to the public health, to public morals, or to trade or commerce, or for the perversion or obstruction of public justice, or the due administration of the law.” The ■Revised Statutes contained a similar provision. 2 Rev. St. 692, § 8. sub. 6.
The fact that the defendants subscribed the constitution and by-laws of the “Lockport Coal Exchange,” and participated in its management, was not controverted on the trial. Nor was there any dispute that the object of the organization was to prevent competition in the price of coal among the retail dealers, acting as the “Lockport Coal Exchange,” by constituting the-exchange the sole authority to fix the price which should be charged by the members individually- for coal sold by them. Nor is there any dispute that in pursuance of the plan the exchange did proceed to fix the price of coal, and that the parties-to the agreement were thereafter governed thereby in making.
sales to their customers. 2sior is it questioned that the price first established was seventy-five cents in advance of the then market price, and that there was afterwards a still further advance.
The defendants gave evidence tending to show (and of this, there was no contradiction), that before and at the time of the organization of the exchiangethe successive competition between-the dealers in coal in Lockport had reduced the price below the actual cost of the coal and the expense of handling, and that the business was carried on at a Loss. It was not shown, that the prices of coal, fixed from time to time by the exchange,, were excessive or oppressive, or were more than sufficient to. afford a fair remuneration to the dealers.
The trial judge submitted the case to the jury upon the proposition that if the .defendants entered into the organization-agreement for the purpose of controlling the price of coal and managing the business of the sale of coal so as to prevent competition in price between -the members of the exchange, the-agreement was illegal, and that if the jury found that this, was their intent, and that the price of coal was raised in pursuance of the agreement to effect its object, the crime of conspiracy was' established. The correctness of this proposition, is the main question in the case. !
If the confederacy into which the defendants entered was an act “injurious to trade or commerce,” irrespective of its results, in the particular -case, then there is no difficulty in maintaining the .conviction. If a combination between independent dealers to prevent competition between themselves in the sale of an •article of prime necessity is, in the contemplation of the law,, an act inimical to trade or commerce, whatever may be done-under and in pursuance of it, and although the object of the combination is merely the due protection of the parties to it against ruinous rivalry, and no attempt is made to charge undu-e- •or excessive prices, then the indictment was sustained by proof. On the other hand, if the validity and legality of an agreement having for its object the prevention of competition between dealers in the same commodity depend upon what may be done-under the agreement, and is to be adjudged valid or invalid according to the fact whether it is made the means for raising:
the price of a commodity beyond its normal and reasonable value, then it would be difficult to sustain this conviction, for it affirmatively appears that the price fixed for coal by the exchange did not exceed what would afford a reasonable profit to the dealers. It was said by Parker, Oh. J. (Lord Macclesfield), in his celebrated judgment in Mitchel v. Reynolds, 1 P. .Wms. 181, which was the case of a bond taken from the defendant on the sale by him to the plaintiff of a lease of a bakehouse, claimed to be void as in restraint of trade, “in all restraints of trade, where nothing more appears, the law presumes them bad; but if the circumstances are set forth, that presumption is excluded; the court is to judge of these circumstances, and to determine accordingly; and if upon them it appears to be a just and honest contract, it ought to be maintained.”
If this agreement and what was done under it is to be judged as an isolated transaction, and its rigbtfulnesis is to be determined alone upon the peculiar circumstances, whether it did or did not produce an injury to trade, we might well hesitate. The obtaining by dealers of a fair and reasonable price for what they sell does not seem to contravene public policy, or to work an injury to individuals. On the contrary, the general interests are promoted by activity in trade, which cannot permanently exist without reasonable encouragement to • those engaged' in it. Producers, consumers and laborers are alike benefited by healthful conditions of business.
But the question here does not turn on the point whether the agreement between the retail dealers in coal did, as matter of fact, result in injury to the public or to the community in Lookport. The question is, was the agreement one, in view of what might have been done under it, and the fact that it was an agreemenltthe effect of which was to prevent competition among the coal dealers, upon which the law affixes the brand of condemnation, and which it will not permit.
It has hitherto1 been an accepted maxim in political economy that “competition is the life of trade.” The court’s have acted upon and adopted this maxim in passing upon the validity of agreements the design of which was to prevent competition intrude, and have held such agreements to be invalid. It is to be-
noticed that the organization of the “exchange” was of the most formal character. The articles bound all who became members to conform to the regulations. The observance of such regulations by the members was enforced by penalties and forfeit-1 ures. A member accused by the secretary of having violated any provision of the constitution or by-laws was required to purge himself by affidavit, although evidence to sustain the charge should be lacking.
The shippers of coal were to be notified in case of persistent default by the member that “he is not entitled to the privileges of membership in the exchange.” ¡No member was permitted to sell coal at less than the price fixed by the exchange.
The organization was a carefully devised scheme to prevent competition in the price of coal among the retail dealers, and the moral and material power of the combination afforded a reasonable guaranty that others would not engage in the business in Loekport except in conformity with the rules of the exchange.
The cases of Hooker v. Vandewater, 4 Den. 349, and Stanton v. Allen, 5 id. 434, are, we think, decisive authorities in support of the judgment'in this case. They were oases of combinations between transportation lines on the canals to maintain rates for the carriage of goods and passengers, and the court, in those cases, held that the agreements were void, on the ground that they were agreements to prevent competition, and the doctrine was affirmed that agreements having that purpose, made between independent lines of transportation, were, in law, agreements injurious to trade. In those cases it was not shown that the rates fixed were excessive. In the case in 5th Denio, the judge delivering the opinion referred to the effect of the agreement upon the public revenue from the canals. This was an added circumstance, tending to show the injury which might result from agreements to raise prices or prevent competition. See, also, People v. Fisher, 14 Wend. 10; Arnot v. P.
&
E. Coal Co., 68 N. Y. 558.
The gravamen of the offense of conspiracy is the combination. Agreements to prevent competition in trade are in contemplation of law injurious to trade, because they are liable to be injuriously used. The present case may be used as an
illustration. The price of coal now fixed by the exchange may be reasonable in view of the interests both of dealers and consumers, but the organization may not always be guided by the-principle of absolute justice. There are some limitations in the constitution of the exchange, but these may be changed and the price of coal may be unreasonably advanced. It is. manifest that the exchange is acting in sympathy with the producers and shippers of coal. Some -of .the shippers were present' when the plan of organization was considered, and it was indicated on the trial that the producers had a similar organiza- . tion between themselves.
If agreements and combinations to prevent competition in-prices a.re or may be hurtful to trade, the only sure remedy is to-prohibit all agreements of that character. If the validity of such an agreement was made to depend upon actual proof of public prejudice or injury, it would be very difficult in any case to establish the invalidity, although the moral evidence might' be very convincing.
We are of opinion that the principle upon which the case was. submitted to the jury is sanctioned by the decisions in this state,, and that the jury were properly instructed that if the purpose-of the agreement was to prevent competition in the price of coal between the retail dealers, it was illegal and justified the conviction of the defendants.
There is a -single remaining question. The trial judge was: requested by the defendant’s counsel, in substance, to charge-that the overt act required to he proved to sustain a conviction for conspiracy must be one which might injuriously affect the public, and that the act of the defendants in raising the price -of coal was of itself not such an overt act as was required. The-request was, we think, properly refused.
The offense of conspiracy was complete at -common law on-pro-of -of the unlawful agreement. It was not necessary to allege or prove any overt act in pursuance of the agreement. 3 Ch. Cr. Laws, 142; O’Connell v. Reg, 11 Cl. & Fin. 155. In this state this rule of the common law was changed by the-Revised Statutes, and with certain exceptions it was provided that no agreement should he deemed a conspiracy “unless s-ome act beside such agreement be done to effect the object thereof
by one or more of the parties to such agreement.” 2 Rev. St. 692, § 10. And this principle was re-enacted in the Penal Code, section 171.
The object of the statute was to require something more than a mere agreement to constitute a criminal conspiracy. There must be some act in pursuance thereof and done to effect its object, before the crime was consummated. A mere agreement, followed by no act, is insufficient.
The overt act charged in the indictment and proved, was the raising of the price of coal. The raising of the price of coal by a dealer unconnected with any conspiracy is not unlawful, but if there is a conspiracy to regulate the price, and that conspiracy is unlawful, then raising the price is an act done to effect its object, whether the price fixed is reasonable or excessive. The object of the statute is accomplished when it is shown that the parties have proceeded to act upon the agreement and done anything towards effecting its object.
We think there is no error in the record and the conviction should, therefore, be affirmed.
All concur.