OPINION
Chief Justice SUTTELL,
for the Court.
This case originated as a negligence and wrongful death action brought by Kathryn Manning (Mrs. Manning or plaintiff), individually and as administratrix of the estate of Michael Manning (Manning) and on behalf of her four minor children, against Peter J. Bellafiore, M.D. (Dr. Bellafiore or defendant), but has since evolved into extensive litigation regarding sanctions.1 The trial justice sanctioned both Dr. Bel-lafiore and the law firm that represented him at trial, White & Kelly, P.C. (WCK),2 for their failure to make pretrial disclosures. The latter parties each appealed from the order awarding sanctions and the matters were consolidated by this Court. The overriding issue to be decided in both appeals is whether the trial justice properly imposed sanctions. For the reasons set forth herein, we affirm in part and reverse in part the judgment of the Superior Court.
I
Facts and Procedural History
A
Overview
This Court is familiar with the facts in this case as set forth in Manning v. Bellafiore, 991 A.2d 399 (R.I.2010) (Manning I). To briefly summarize, on March 4, 1998, Manning was taken to the emergency care unit at South County Hospital (SCH) after [508]*508he lost consciousness and fell at his home. Manning was admitted to SCH and, over the course of four days, Dr. Bellafiore was the treating neurologist responsible for Manning’s care. During this time, Dr. Bellafiore also consulted with Donald M. McNiece, M.D. (Dr. McNiece), Manning’s primary-care physician. Doctor Bellafiore established a differential diagnosis3 for Manning of complex migraine, aneurysm, tumor, and stroke, and he recommended that Manning undergo a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)/magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) to determine whether Manning was suffering a stroke and, if so, •to locate the blockage of blood flow to his brain.4
On the first day he was admitted to SCH (March 4 or day 1), Manning attempted to undergo an MRI/MRA on two occasions. The first attempt was unsuccessful, however, because he had a claustrophobic reaction. Doctor Bellafiore prescribed the antianxiety medication Ativan and the antinausea medication Compazine for Manning, but a second attempt to undergo the MRI/MRA was also unsuccessful. The next day (March 5 or day 2), Dr. Bellafiore contacted the MRI Network of Rhode Island to set up an “open architecture MRI” for Manning in the hope of mitigating Manning’s claustrophobia. The MRI Network of Rhode Island directed Dr. Bellafiore to the open MRI machine at Rhode Island Hospital (RIH). However, Dr. Bellafiore learned that the open MRI machine at RIH was under repair and would not be available.
On March 6 (day 3), a computerized tomography (CT) scan, conducted and ordered by Dr. Bellafiore after Manning complained of a headache, revealed that Manning had indeed suffered a stroke on March 4. Doctor Bellafiore again attempted to schedule an open MRI at RIH; however, he was informed that the machine was still down for repair but that it would possibly be fixed by the end of the day. On March 7 (day 4), Dr. Bellafiore spoke with a radiology fellow at RIH, who opined that an open MRI machine would not give as good an image as a closed one. At that juncture, the decision was made for Manning to try the closed MRI machine under general anesthesia on March 9, the next day the MRI machine would be available at SCH.5 Tragically, however, Manning suffered a second stroke on March 7. He was airlifted to Massachusetts General Hospital, where a blood clot led to steadied loss of brain function. Manning’s life support was withdrawn on March 9 and he passed away.
On January 6, 2000, plaintiff filed a negligence and wrongful death suit against Drs. Bellafiore and McNiece, as well as against SCH. As the case progressed, an important component of plaintiffs malpractice claim against Dr. Bellafiore was his failure to conduct the MRI during the first three days of Manning’s hospitalization and his failure to present Manning with alternatives to obtaining the MRI in light of Manning’s claustrophobia. One of plaintiffs main contentions was that Manning’s death could have been avoided if defendants had administered or obtained an MRI test immediately after Manning’s admission to the hospital, either at SCH or by transferring him to a different facility.
[509]*509B
Discovery
The parties engaged in discovery from the commencement of the action in January 2000 to January 2004, when the case went to trial. During discovery, there was a great deal of evidence and testimony relating to Dr. Bellafiore’s treatment of Manning. Specifically, the evidence presented focused on Dr. Bellafiore’s attempts to have Manning undergo an MRI and discussions regarding sedation to assist him in undergoing the procedure.
In plaintiffs interrogatories, plaintiff asked Dr. Bellafiore to “state to the best of [his] recollection any and all conversations [he] had with any person concerning the care and/or treatment of * * * Manning from March 4, 1998 to date * * The plaintiff asked Dr. Bellafiore to provide information regarding “the person with whom [he] had each conversation,” “the time and date of each conversation,” and “the content of each conversation.” (Interrogatory No. 18.) Doctor Bellafiore raised several objections but ultimately directed plaintiff to his answer to interrogatory No. 7 and attested that “[he] spoke with [Manning] and [Mrs. Manning] during [Manning’s] admission regarding his treatment,” without specifying the content of those conversations. The answer to interrogatory No. 7 also did not specify any conversation Dr. Bellafiore had with Manning, instead, it provided a brief overview of Manning’s hospital stay. It does not appear from the record that plaintiff sought to compel more responsive answers to interrogatories No. 7 or 18. However, following Dr. Bellafiore’s deposition, plaintiff filed a motion to compel Dr. Bellafiore to file a more responsive answer to plaintiffs interrogatory No. 16, which asked for all facts relating to defendant’s assumption of the risk defense. In Dr. Bellafiore’s supplemental answer, he averred that in
“the event that plaintiff asserts that an MRI would have changed * * * Manning’s outcome in this case, * * * Manning refused to be sedated to undergo a ‘closed’ MRI, when the ‘open’ MRI at [RIH] was inoperable, despite being repeatedly informed that he might have a life threatening condition, which might be detectable by MRI.”6
During his deposition, Dr. Bellafiore was questioned regarding the sequence of events, including his conversations with Manning regarding the MRI and sedation. When asked what he gives to patients experiencing claustrophobia to make them capable of completing an MRI, Dr. Bellaf-iore replied, “I use Ativan.” He further explained that the amount of Ativan is “dependant [sic] on [the patients’] size, their weight but also the effect that the medication has on them.” The questioning then proceeded to the situation where sedation equipment was brought into the MRI suite; Dr. Bellafiore testified that he was aware of that possibility, and discussed his experiences. When asked if there was “any reason why * * * Manning couldn’t have been sedated with the assistance of anesthesiology on March 4th in order to accomplish the MRI,” Dr. Bellaf-iore answered yes, “[b]ecause it’s a dangerous procedure to give someone general anesthesia or anesthetic who is having a potential stroke.”
Doctor Bellafiore testified that he had not called the anesthesia department to [510]*510ask what kind of sedation could be performed on Manning “because it’s dangerous or it would put him at risk,” which Dr. Bellafiore did not wish to do “unless [they] couldn’t get the study in the open [MRI] machine.” He was asked what options there were for sedation in a closed machine at RIH, to which he responded that he had assumed they were the same as at SCH: “There are a variety of things you can do including Ativan or other benzo-diazepines, there are antipsychotics- that they may use, the general things an anesthesiologist would do.” At this point, Dr. Bellafiore explained that sedation posed a risk to Manning because “it [could] alter blood pressure, respiratory function, it also [could] affect the neurologic exam making it difficult to assess the patient for integral changes. It [could] cause them to aspirate, it [could] have technical/mechanical difficulties, all the risks that you [would] have with general anesthesia.”
Doctor Bellafiore testified that on day 1 he told the Mannings “that it would be difficult to treat [Manning] unless [they] had [the MRI and MRA] done.” He recalled that he asked Manning on day 2 whether Manning would undergo an MRI if he had more sedation. When asked what he told Manning about sedation, Dr. Bellafiore testified that “[he] said [they] could try giving [Manning] more Ativan to make him a little sleepier to see if [Manning] could tolerate the test,” however, he testified that Manning “said there was no way that he wanted to try that. He just couldn’t do it he said. Those were his words. He just [could not] do it. And he apologized. He felt bad about it but he said he didn’t want to try.” When asked if it was Dr. Bellafiore’s “testimony that [Manning] refused to attempt this test after [he] told [Manning] that he had a life[-]threatening condition * * Dr. Bellafiore stated “[absolutely.” Doctor Bellafiore also testified that he spoke to Dr. McNiece “[e]ssentially [about] * * * Manning * * * refusing the MRI * * * even with more sedation in the closed machine.” When asked if Manning “had undergone sedation [short of general anesthesia] in order to accomplish an MRI, * * * what[ ] [was] the likelihood that his blood pressure and respiration would become so compromised that it would be life[-]threatening,” Dr. Bellafiore replied that he did not know a percentage number, “but [he] would say that the chances are great enough that you would want to attempt the open MRI first.” He testified that he told Manning in the evening of day 2 that “[they] would try for the open MRI machine the next day.”
Doctor Bellafiore further testified that, after examining Manning in the morning of day 3, he told Manning “that it look[ed] like [he was] having symptoms of a stroke and that [they] really need[ed] to perform th[e] MRI.” Because the open MRI machine at RIH was still not operational that day, “[Dr. Bellafiore] asked [Manning] if he would consider going into the closed unit with more sedation and [Manning] said no.” Doctor Bellafiore conceded that he did not document this conversation or Manning’s refusal to undergo the closed MRI.
Doctor Bellafiore testified that on the following day, day 4, he spoke to a radiology fellow at RIH again in an attempt to learn the status of the open MRI machine. At that time it became apparent to Dr. Bellafiore that it was unclear when and if the open MRI machine would be working. After Dr. Bellafiore testified that the fellow stated that he did not believe the image in the open MRI would be as good as the closed MRI and that he suggested trying the closed MRI under general anesthesia, the following colloquy occurred during the deposition:
[511]*511“Q. Well, didn’t you tell him that the closed machine with general anesthesia posed a risk of death to your client, your patient?
“A. We talked about it.
“Q. Well, what did he say about that risk of death from sedation or anesthesia?
“A. Well, I don’t remember what he said, but it really didn’t matter what he said. The open MRI wasn’t available.
“Q. So how does that change the fact that sedation or anesthesia pose[d] a risk of death to your patient? How does that change it?
“A. It doesn’t change the fact, but if there’s no alternative which at this point there wasn’t—
“Q. Uh-huh.
“A. —then we had no choice but to try the regular MRI with some anesthesia.
“Q. So if I understand- you correctly, as of March 7th you were prepared to try the closed machine and put * * * Manning under some kind of sedation or anesthesia in order to get a picture, right?
“A. Correct.
“Q. Well, why, Doctor, why were you prepared to take that risk on the 7th when you weren’t prepared to have * * * — to take that risk with * * * Manning on the 5th or the 6th?
“A. Because on the 5th and the 6th the expectation was that the open MRI, which was the safer test, was going to be available. That’s the information that was conveyed to us.”
Doctor Bellafiore testified that the decision was made to perform the MRI under general anesthesia at SCH on March 9, the next day the machine would be available at the hospital.
C
Trial
On January 5, 2004, after a lengthy discovery period, the case proceeded to trial. On the fifteenth day of trial, Dr. Bellafiore testified that on days 2 and 3 of Manning’s hospitalization, he offered Manning “conscious sedation” to assist him in undergoing a closed MRI but that Manning apologetically refused. Specifically, Dr. Bellafiore testified that, when his patients experience claustrophobia, “[Ativan] [i]s the first thing that [he] tr[ies].” He further explained that:
“Well, what I’m telling you is that I did offer him Ativan. And then I also talked to him about IV sedation * * * with the help of an anesthesiologist.
a * * *
“I told him about conscious sedation. * * * I’ve had a number of patients who had seizures who are developmentally delayed * * * [a]nd with those patients sometimes you need to get an MRI. And a good way of doing it, because they’re so uncooperative, is to give them this IV Versed, which is that sedative.
“So I told him about those patients that I had experience with and told him it was something that we could certainly arrange for or try to do.
it * * #
“I remember [what Manning told me], because I was struck by it. He told me, ‘I’m sorry, Doc.’ I remember it when people call me Doc. It just makes me feel like a doctor. T know you need me to do this test to figure out what to do, but I just can’t do it.’ This was on the morning of the 5th after I told him all the things that could possibly be wrong. And I told him about conscious sedation. I told him about Ativan. I told him the open MRI may not give us the answer we need. I basically held — and told him [512]*512he could have a stroke, he could have a tumor. I was holding a neurological gun to his head. That’s when he told me, ‘I’m sorry, Doc, if you need me to do this, I just can’t do it.’ I was struck because I never had a patient apologize to me about that before. And frankly, I felt a little guilty because here’s a guy who’s sick, who’s probably scared to death, and I’m making him feel so guilty he’s apologizing to me.
“At that point I told him, you know, ‘Okay. We can tryfor the open MRI, see what we can get, and we’ll go from there.’ And I didn’t document any of that.”
Doctor Bellafíore explained that what he “mean[t] by sedation [was] Ativan or IV Versed, and that’s what [he] would refer to as conscious sedation.” He also testified that conscious sedation was a “reasonable option” for Manning and that he had discussed it with Manning on the morning of day 2.
Over a week later, plaintiff filed a motion for entry of default judgment against Dr. Bellafíore or in the alternative to strike his defense or testimony for inconsistencies between his discovery disclosures and trial testimony regarding sedation. Doctor Bellafíore objected to both remedies. The trial justice pointed out that Dr. Bellafíore had not yet completed testifying, and reserved his decision “until probably after the verdict.” The trial justice stated that:
“Sometimes the greatest penalty for a witness who has been inconsistent or misleading is that the jury won’t believe him or her. Here the witness is still testifying so the [e]ourt declines to step in at this point and will reserve and see what happens. Counsel may submit additional responses for final instructions or for other relief.”
After the conclusion of all testimony, plaintiff set forth a renewed motion for entry of default judgment against Dr. Bellafíore. The trial justice denied the motion “without prejudice” but also “treat[ed] it as a motion for judgment as a matter of law” and reserved his decision until after a verdict was reached. The next day, the jury returned a verdict in favor of all three defendants.
D
Posttrial Sanction Proceedings
The plaintiff subsequently filed a motion for a new trial. The defendant filed a renewed motion for judgment as a matter of law. The trial justice granted plaintiffs motion for a new trial as to Dr. Bellafíore on the grounds that the verdict was not supported by the evidence. This Court affirmed the trial justice’s grant of a new trial on the basis that the trial justice had not overlooked or misconceived material evidence when deciding that the verdict was against the fair preponderance of the evidence. Manning I, 991 A.2d at 410-11.
Following this Court’s decision, plaintiff filed a renewed motion for sanctions against Dr. Bellafíore and his attorneys for their failure to disclose during discovery that he had spoken to Manning on days 2 and 3 of his hospitalization regarding the possibility of using conscious sedation to undergo the MRI. The defendant again objected to the motion. After further briefing and hearings, the trial justice issued an order finding that “an order imposing sanctions upon Dr. Bellafíore or his attorney(s) [was] appropriate” based upon “the actions described in the [c]ourt’s [decision of November, 2005.” The court also noted that plaintiff had reserved her right to seek additional sanctions for “other conduct.” Finding that the type and extent of the sanction to be imposed had not “yet been established,” the court reserved on [513]*513the issue pending further hearing and discovery.
Shortly thereafter, the negligence and wrongful death case against Dr. Bellafiore settled. However, the parties’ dismissal stipulation explicitly preserved “the claims being made by * * * plaintiff[ ] for sanctions against Dr. Bellafiore, William F. White [ (White) ] or [WCK].” Extensive hearings were held throughout 2011 and 2012 concerning essentially the differences between Dr. Bellafiore’s pretrial disclosures and his trial testimony to determine the degree of the sanction to be imposed and upon whom it should be imposed. The trial justice heard testimony by Dr. Bellaf-iore and the two partners at WCK who represented Dr. Bellafiore at trial — White and Joshua Carlin. Attorney Richard Boren also testified for plaintiff as to the reasonableness of the amount of plaintiffs sanction request. The parties also submitted post-hearing written memoranda.
During the sanction proceedings, new evidence became available regarding a letter Dr. Bellafiore, with the assistance of counsel, drafted and submitted to the Rhode Island Board of Medical Licensure (board letter). In this board letter, Dr. Bellafiore described in detail his treatment of Manning. The board letter outlined that Manning refused to undergo a closed MRI on day 2 of his hospitalization, even with “maximum sedation.” White had the board letter in his files and when tasked with providing answers to plaintiffs interrogatories, Dr. Bellafiore referred counsel to the board letter.
E
Superior Court Decision
In a lengthy decision, the trial justice granted plaintiffs motion to sanction both Dr. Bellafiore and WCK under Rule 11 of the Superior Court Rules of Civil Procedure and awarded plaintiff $152,998.57— holding Dr. Bellafiore individually responsible for eighty percent and WCK for the remaining twenty percent. In his decision, the trial justice first analyzed whether the imposition of a sanction was appropriate, and then considered whom to sanction, how to apportion the sanction, and what monetary amount to sanction.
As to the first inquiry concerning the appropriateness of a sanction in this case, the trial justice observed that Dr. Bellaf-iore’s trial testimony was “drastically different” from what was present in the medical records. The trial justice also found that the following information was never provided prior to trial:
“[ (1) ] The term ‘conscious sedation,’ which Dr. Bellafiore seems to use throughout his trial testimony, had not been used before[;]
“[ (2) ] Talking to * * * Manning about bringing in an anesthesiologist had never been described[;]
“[ (3) ] The drug, Versed, was never identified earlier[;]
“[ (4) ] Conversations with * * * Manning about sedations on March 5 or March 6 were not mentioned by Dr. Bellafiore earlier[;]
“[ (5) ] Even more surprising was Dr. Bellafiore’s new revelation that * * * Manning apologized (‘I’m sorry, Doc.’).”
The trial justice explained that the “entire defense changed and different facts were thrown into the mix of an already complex trial” as a result of this testimony. Accordingly, he concluded that a sanction was indeed appropriate.
In deciding whom to sanction, the trial justice found that “Dr. Bellafiore’s trial testimony was far more telling than his discovery responses.” He concluded that “[ejither [Dr. Bellafiore] was hiding the complete answers, or he opted to modify [514]*514his version of the truth far into the trial.” He explained that, if the conversation that Dr. Bellafiore testified to at trial had in fact occurred, “Dr. Bellafiore had a clear obligation to disclose that in his discovery-answers.” He found that Dr. Bellafiore’s testimony at the sanction hearing “bore limited credibility,” sought to “cast blame on everyone but himself,” and was “very self-serving.” The trial justice concluded, however, that “Dr. Bellafiore’s testimony did not lead the [trial] [c]ourt to surmise that counsel masterminded the entire shell game” and that Dr. Bellafiore “b[ore] significant responsibility for the sanctionable conduct.”
The trial justice further explained that “[t]here was no showing that [White] knew that Dr. Bellafiore had such a detailed recollection of the specific events of the key conversation * * However, the trial justice highlighted that White had the board letter, which included Manning’s refusal to undergo the MRI even with “maximum sedation,” and despite Dr. Bellafiore having pointed White to the board letter to properly answer the interrogatories, White “failed to include the reference to maximum sedation in Dr. Bellafiore’s interrogatory answers.” The trial justice opined that “Dr. Bellafiore and his counsel should have recognized that the issue of sedation, and whether * * * Manning gave informed consent, were very much in issue. They had a duty to disclose facts, when asked. * * * Counsel knew, or should have known, of this clear obligation.” Ultimately, the trial justice concluded that White “was obligated but failed to determine the issues with * * * Manning’s anesthesia and * * * Manning’s concerns about the anesthesia,” and “[w]hile th[e] [c]ourt [wa]s clearly convinced that Dr. Bellafiore b[ore] the lion’s share of responsibility for the failure to respond, counsel ha[d] some responsibility as well.”
In deciding how to apportion the sanction between Dr. Bellafiore and White, the trial justice reasoned that Dr. Bellafiore was “primarily culpable,” since “[h]e responded to his attorneys’ questions, drafted interrogatory answers, signed answers under oath, responded to deposition questions under oath, verified the transcripts for their accuracy, and uncorked the surprise testimony deep into the marathon trial.” Consequently, he held Dr. Bellaf-iore eighty percent responsible and WCK twenty percent responsible. The trial justice disagreed with Dr. Bellafiore’s argument that the costs incurred by plaintiff should have been reduced by one-third because there were two other defendants in the matter. He explained that “it was the sanctionable conduct rooted in Dr. Bel-lafioie’s defense which caused the need for the second trial — and created the chaos of the first trial.” The trial justice did not consider the proposed deduction to be appropriate in view of the fact that the motion for a new trial was granted solely in plaintiffs case against Dr. Bellafiore.
Finally, in deciding what monetary amount would be appropriate as a sanction, the trial justice highlighted that so much of plaintiffs attorneys’ efforts, “including the trial itself and some of the preparation costs, were for naught.” The trial justice explained that ordering the new trial did nothing to make plaintiff whole, but instead “simply burdenfed] [plaintiff] with more expenses and labor.” The trial justice then conducted an analysis to determine the amount of attorneys’ fees that it would be reasonable to assess as a sanction and the proper method of calculating those fees in light of plaintiffs contingency-fee arrangement with her attorneys. The plaintiffs attorneys had not kept contemporaneous time records be-causé they did not bill on an hourly basis; therefore, they were required to retroactively calculate their time and expenses. [515]*515Ultimately, the trial justice assessed $38,398.58 for “expenses * * * incurred by [plaintiff] and rendered unnecessary as a result of the sanctionable conduct.” With respect to attorneys’ fees, the trial justice allowed 23 hours for pretrial work “which were rendered useless or redundant as a result of the sanctionable conduct”; 325.5 hours for trial work and 25 hours for the sanction proceedings, for a total of 382 hours at a rate of $300 per hour.7 Accordingly, the trial justice imposed a sanction totaling $152,998.57. Judgment was entered for plaintiff in that amount, and both Dr. Bellafiore and WCK filed timely notices of appeal. This Court consolidated their appeals.8
II
Standard of Review
“Like questions of statutory construction, the interpretation of court rules of procedure is a legal question for the court.” FIA Card Services, N.A. v. Pichette, 116 A.3d 770, 776 (R.I.2015) (quoting Rosano v. Mortgage Electronic Registration Systems, Inc., 91 A.3d 336, 339 (R.I.2014)). ‘We apply a de novo review to questions of law.” Id. Moreover, “[w]hile ‘a trial justice has discretionary authority to formulate what he or she considers to be an appropriate sanction,’ we will reverse a sanction when it was imposed based on an erroneous view of the law” or on a clearly erroneous assessment of the evidence. Id. (quoting Pleasant Management LLC v. Carrasco, 918 A.2d 213, 217 (R.I.2007)). We will reverse a. trial justice’s decision regarding sanctions if the trial justice has abused his or her discretion or is otherwise clearly wrong. Carrasco, 918 A.2d at 217.
Ill
Discussion
This case presents two issues to be decided by this Court: (1) whether Rule 11 applies to discovery violations; and (2) whether the trial justice abused his discretion or was otherwise clearly wrong in sanctioning Dr. Bellafiore and WCK.
Applicable Rule
“Rule 11 ‘provides trial courts with broad authority to impose sanctions against attorneys for advancing claims without proper foundation * * ” Huntley v. State, 109 A.3d 869, 873 (R.I.2015) (quoting Michalopoulos v. C & D Restaurant Inc., 847 A.2d 294, 300 (R.I.2004)). Rule 11 provides, in pertinent part, as follows:
“[E]very pleading, written motion, and other paper of a party represented by an attorney shall be personally signed by at least one * * * attorney of record * * *. * * * The signature of an attorney * * * or party constitutes a certificate by the signer that the signer has read the pleading, motion, or other paper; that to the best of the signer’s knowledge, information, and belief formed after reasonable inquiry * * * [it] is well grounded in fact and is warranted by existing law or a good faith argument for the extension, modifica[516]*516tion, or reversal of existing law, and that * * * [it] is not interposed for any improper purpose, such as to harass or to cause unnecessary delay or needless increase in the cost of litigation. * * * If a pleading, motion, or other paper is signed in violation of this rule, the court, upon motion or upon its own initiative, may impose upon the person who signed * * * [it], a represented party, or both, any appropriate sanction * *
As recently noted in Pichette, 116 A.3d at 779, “the linchpin of Rule 11 is its signature requirement,” because the “signature certifies to the court that the signer has made ‘[a] reasonable inquiry to assure that all pleadings, motions and papers filed with the court are factually well-grounded, legally tenable and not interposed for any improper purpose.’ ” Id. at 778 (quoting Pleasant Management LLC, 918 A.2d at 218). Under the plain language of Rule 11, sanctions may be imposed “upon the person who signed [the document], a represented party, or both * * “In fashioning an appropriate sanction, a trial justice ‘must do so in accordance with the articulated purpose of the rule: to deter repetition of the harm, and to remedy the harm caused.’ ” Huntley, 109 A.3d at 873 (quoting Pleasant Management LLC, 918 A.2d at 217).
Here, the trial justice “abstained] from deciding whether defective interrogatory answers violate[d] Rulé 11, Rule 26, or Rule 37 [of the Superior Court Rules of Civil Procedure] * * but nonetheless applied Rule 11 sanctions. It is our opinion that in view of its clear language, Rule 11 does not apply to the discovery violations alleged in this case — where it is claimed that defendant failed to provide complete answers to interrogatories and at deposition. See D'Amario v. State, 686 A.2d 82, 85 (R.I.1996) (holding that sanctions under Rule 11 were inappropriate because, among other things, “Rule 26(f) and not Rule 11 would be the applicable rule for assessing compliance with certification standards” of discovery requests, responses, and objections).
“Nevertheless, we acknowledge that this Court may award attorneys’ fees as an exercise of ‘its inherent power to fashion an appropriate remedy that would serve the ends of justice.’ ” Blue Cross & Blue Shield of Rhode Island v. Najarian, 911 A.2d 706, 711 n. 5 (R.I.2006) (quoting Vincent v. Musone, 574 A.2d 1234, 1235 (R.I.1990)).
“This remedy, however, is available only in one of three narrowly defined circumstances: (1) pursuant to the ‘common fund exception’ that ‘allows a court to award attorney’s fees to a party whose litigation efforts directly benefit others[,]’ * * *; (2) ‘as a sanction for the willful disobedience of a court order[,]’ * * *; or (3) when a party has ‘acted in bad faith, vexatiously, wantonly, or for oppressive reasons.’ ” Id. (quoting Chambers v. NASCO, Inc., 501 U.S. 32, 45-46, 111 S.Ct. 2123, 115 L.Ed.2d 27 (1991)).”
Additionally, “[e]ven if the provisions of the [r]ules of [c]ivil [procedure that permit the imposition of sanctions for litigation abuses are not strictly applicable here, they may nevertheless be used by analogy to guide our review of the [Superior] [C]ourt’s actions.” Lett v. Providence Journal Co., 798 A.2d 355, 365 (R.I.2002) (quoting John’s Insulation, Inc. v. L. Addison and Associates, Inc., 156 F.3d 101, 108 (1st Cir.1998)). Consequently, this Court will review the trial justice’s imposition of the sanction based on its inherent powers. See Najarian, 911 A.2d at 711.
B
Findings of Sanctionable Conduct
1. Doctor Bellafiore
On appeal, Dr. Bellafiore argues that the hearing justice abused his discre[517]*517tion by allocating primary responsibility for the sanctionable conduct to him, and he contends that the judgment must be reversed for several reasons. First, Dr. Bel-lafiore argues that the alleged “surprise” testimony at trial was contained in his board letter, which he wrote years before trial and provided to WCK as a source of facts to be referenced in the answers to plaintiffs interrogatories. Second, he argues that the trial justice’s conclusion that he never described any refusal of treatment prior to the trial is contradicted by the record evidence. Third, he claims that the trial justice unfairly held the pretrial memorandum against him, a document he did not see until after WCK filed it with the court. Fourth, he maintains that the trial justice improperly sanctioned him for his medical note-keeping practices despite that issue not being before the court. Lastly, he argues that the trial justice’s allocation of eighty percent of the sanction to him contradicts the record evidence and lacks principled rationale.
In response to Dr. Bellafiore’s arguments, plaintiff argues that the trial justice did not abuse his discretion in imposing a sanction upon Dr. Bellafiore. She argues that the trial justice was in the “best position to fully understand and appreciate the significance of the misconduct, the disruption caused to the legal process, and the need to correct this injustice by deterring repetition and remedying the harm caused.” The plaintiff further contends that Dr. Bellafiore’s “deliberate and calculated decision to withhold statements he then claimed were made by [Manning] robbed * * * plaintiff and her children of their day in court.” The plaintiff insists that it is “impossible to corroborate either version of Dr. Bellafiore’s testimony, because his contemporaneous medical records are so lacking in detail” and because neither Dr. McNiece nor plaintiffs testimony demonstrated that Dr. Bellafiore had the conversation with Manning about sedation and that Manning refused. The plaintiff highlights that “Dr. Bellafiore was in the best position to know if his written answers contained complete and accurate accounts of the medical events surrounding the care of * * * Manning” and that, consequently, he cannot simply assign the blame to his counsel.
After a thorough review of the extensive trial record before this Court, including motions, discovery material, exhibits, and transcripts of both the underlying trial and sanction proceedings, it is this Court’s opinion that the trial justice did not overlook or misconceive material evidence in determining that a sanction was appropriate against Dr. Bellafiore. It is important to note at the outset, however, that of the five assertions made by Dr. Bellafiore at trial that the trial justice characterized as “brand new” in his written decision, two of those assertions — testimony regarding “[Conversations with * * * Manning about sedations on March 5 or March 6” and testimony that “Manning apologized” — can be found in the deposition transcripts that are part of the record before this Court.9 Nevertheless, at least three assertions were made in Dr. Bellafiore’s trial testimony that had not been made during discovery, including the use of the term “conscious sedation,” the discussion of the drug Versed as a possible anesthetic to allow Manning to undergo the closed MRI, and [518]*518bringing in an anesthesiologist during days 2 and 3 of Manning’s hospitalization.
The record before this Court is clear that, at a minimum, Dr. Bellafiore failed to answer questions posed in plaintiffs interrogatories and at his deposition completely and that he added significant new details in his testimony at trial. When asked in plaintiffs interrogatories to provide information regarding “the person with whom [he] had each conversation, * * * the time and date of each conversation, * * * [and] the content of each conversation,” Dr. Bel-lafiore attested that “[he] spoke with [Manning] and [Mrs. Manning] during [Manning’s] admission regarding his treatment,” without specifying the content of those conversations. When asked at deposition what he prescribed to patients in the past who needed to undergo an MRI but were having a claustrophobic reaction, he testified that “[he] use[d] Ativan.” He also agreed that, “as of March 7th [or day 4]” but not on days 2 or 3, he was prepared to take the risk of trying the closed MRI machine and putting Manning under some kind of sedation or anesthesia in order to get a picture, “[b]ecause on [days 2 and 3] the expectation was that the open MRI, which was the safer test, was going to be available.” Doctor Bellafiore, therefore, indicated that he did not consider anesthesia or sedation with the assistance of an anesthesiologist as a desirable treatment for Manning prior to day 4 because it would pose too much of a risk in light of the expectation that the open MRI unit would be operational in the near future. He also did not describe any IV or Versed sedation with the help of an anesthesiologist as a possible medication for Manning. Nonetheless, and surprisingly, at trial he testified about offering more Ativan as well as TV sedation or “conscious sedation” with the help of an anesthesiologist on days 2 and 3.
It is evident from the record before this Court that this unexpected testimony came as a bombshell in the middle of the trial.10 We agree with the trial justice that to reveal or even suggest, so late in the case, that Manning was informed of risks and refused to undergo the MRI even with “conscious sedation,” was “simply astonishing.” Therefore, the trial justice’s conclusion that Dr. Bellafiore “[e]ither * * * hid[ ] the complete answers, or he opted to modify his version of the truth far into the trial,” is supported by the record and is not otherwise clearly wrong.
Furthermore, although the trial justice did not use the terms “bad faith, vexatiously, wantonly, or for oppressive reasons” to describe Dr. Bellafiore’s actions, the specific finding that “[e]ither Dr. Bellafiore willfully refused to answer direct questions on the specific issues during discovery and after court orders, or he provided false testimony,” are sufficient to supply these meanings. See Harlan v. Lewis, 982 F.2d 1255, 1260 (8th Cir.1993) (“[a]lthough the district judge did not use the words ‘op[519]*519pressive, vexatious, or bad faith’ to describe [counsel’s] action * * * the specific findings of impermissible and unethical conduct are sufficient to supply these meanings”); see also Baker Industries, Inc. v. Cerberus Limited, 764 F.2d 204, 209 (3d Cir.1985) (declining to remand “for an explicit finding of bad faith when it is clearly evident from the district court’s expressions and from the record as a whole, that the district court found, albeit implicitly, * * * conduct to be in bad faith”). The trial justice’s findings that Dr. Bellafiore was “motivated by improper purposes and lacking in good faith,” “knew his sworn answers were indirect, evasive, significantly incomplete, and had little concern for the result,” also supports an inference of a bad-faith finding. Because “[l]it-tle is to be gained from requiring semantic improvement when the meaning of the [trial justice] is clear,” Harlan, 982 F.2d at 1260, this Court holds that a finding that Dr. Bellafiore acted in bad faith can be inferred by the trial justice’s decision and that such decision did not overlook or misconceive material evidence, and is not otherwise clearly wrong. Consequently, it is our opinion that the trial justice did not abuse his discretion in finding that Dr. Bellafiore engaged in sanctionable conduct.
2. Attorney White and WCK
WCK argues that the trial justice committed reversible error and abused his discretion when he sanctioned counsel for the disjunction between Dr. Bellafiore’s pretrial disclosures and his testimony at trial. WCK argues that the trial justice’s twenty percent apportionment of responsibility to WCK for the surprise testimony was not predicated on any finding of willful misconduct by counsel. WCK contests that the trial justice made counsel the guarantor of complete and truthful answers from Dr. Bellafiore. WCK insists that, because Dr. Bellafiore conceded that he never discussed offering anesthesia-assisted conscious sedation with WCK, it “should not be penalized for the failure to disclose a conversation that [Dr. Bellaf-iore] had kept to himself until trial and that may never have taken place at all.”
In response, plaintiff argues that White became aware when he read the board letter as to the central issue regarding the MRI and sedation, but failed to disclose this critical information when he drafted the answers to the interrogatories. Because this information would constitute a “complete defense” — that Manning refused treatment — plaintiff argues that the trial justice properly found that the obligation to disclose this defense rested with both defendant and his counsel, White.
After a careful review of the record before this Court and the trial justice’s decision, it is our opinion that, unlike the findings of fact related to Dr. Bellafiore’s conduct, the trial justice made no findings of fact regarding White’s conduct that would support an inference that White acted in “bad faith, vexatiously, wantonly, or for oppressive reasons.” See Najarian, 911 A.2d at 711 n. 5. To the contrary, the trial justice concluded that Dr. Bellafiore’s testimony at the sanction hearing “did not lead the [trial] [c]ourt to surmise, that counsel masterminded the entire shell game,” and that “[t]here was no showing that [White] knew that Dr. Bellafiore had such a detailed recollection of the specific events of the key conversation * * *.” Although the trial justice found that White “failed to include the reference to maximum sedation in Dr. Bellafiore’s interrogatory answers” despite having the board letter in hand, that “Dr. Bellafiore and his counsel * * * had a duty to disclose facts, when asked,” and that “[c]ounsel knew, or should have known, of this clear obligation,” this does not support an inference [520]*520of bad faith, rather it sounds in negligence.11
Consequently, this Court vacates the judgment against WCK because the trial justice did not make a finding, nor can one be inferred, that the attorneys at WCK acted in “bad faith, vexatiously, wantonly, or for oppressive reasons” as necessary when relying on the court’s inherent powers to impose a sanction.12
Monetary Sanction Imposed
Because we hold that Dr. Bellafiore alone engaged in sanctionable conduct, he is necessarily accountable for one-hundred percent of the sanction.13 However, this Court is troubled by the total amount imposed — $152,998.57. Although we afford a trial justice wide latitude to fashion an appropriate remedy for sanc-tionable conduct, Carrasco, 918 A.2d at 217, we are of the opinion that in this case the trial justice based his calculations on an erroneous assessment of the evidence. See In re Briggs, 62 A.3d 1090, 1098-99 (R.I.2013).
We disagree with the trial justice’s contention that much of the time, effort, money and dedication to the first trial was “for naught” due to Dr. Bellafiore’s sanc-tionable conduct. This characterization of the first trial disregards the fact that plaintiff tried several claims against two other defendants — Dr. McNiece and SCH.14 Although the trial justice attempted to exclude portions of the trial that were related exclusively to the claims against these defendants when calculating the amount of fees he would impose, the ultimate sanction he imposed even exceeded plaintiffs requested amount by over $30,000.15
[521]*521Additionally, although Dr. Bellafiore’s surprise testimony came on February 2, 2004, the trial continued for several more days before plaintiff filed her motion for entry of default judgment against Dr. Bel-lafiore or in the alternative to exclude Dr. Bellafiore’s testimony. At that time, the trial justice reserved ruling on the motion, reasoning that “sometimes the greatest penalty for a witness who has been inconsistent or misleading is that the jury won’t believe him or her.” Notably, after the jury rendered its verdict in favor of Dr. Bellafiore and the trial justice granted plaintiffs motion for a new trial, he did so in part based upon his determination that Dr. Bellafiore’s testimony “best support[ed] the proposition that he failed to meet the standard of care.” Clearly, the differences in Dr. Bellafiore’s pretrial disclosures and trial testimony were not the exclusive reason the trial justice granted plaintiffs motion for a new trial.
It is our opinion, therefore, that Dr. Bellafiore should not have to bear so much of the costs associated with the first trial. This is especially true where the case did not result in a second trial and the parties reached a settlement. Although the parties’ settlement explicitly preserved the issue of sanctions, the fact that plaintiff did not incur the additional costs of a second trial is relevant to determining what amount Dr. Bellafiore should be sanctioned. 'While Rule 11 is not strictly applicable here, the purpose behind its sanctions — “to deter repetition of the harm, and to remedy the harm caused” — can nevertheless guide our review of the sanction imposed in this case. Lett, 798 A.2d at 368. The harm caused to plaintiff was reduced when plaintiff reached a settlement agreement with Dr. Bellafiore and did not have to try the case again. Thus, to “remedy the harm” does not require us to ignore this fact. Additionally, a jury verdict in defendant’s favor was vacated and a new trial was ordered. Undoubtedly, this alone would likely deter any party from failing to make proper pretrial disclosures or from altering their testimony at trial. Doctor Bellafiore too was back to square one.
We are therefore satisfied that the trial justice’s imposition of such a hefty sanction is unsustainable. Accordingly, this Court vacates the order sanctioning Dr. Bellaf-iore and WCK in the amount of $152,998.57 and directs the Superior Court to enter an order sanctioning Dr. Bellaf-iore in the amount of $38,398.53. This sum represents the trial expenses awarded by the trial justice; it does not include, however, the attorneys’ fees awarded by the trial justice.16 The plaintiffs claims against Dr.. McNiece and SCH were fully and finally, albeit unsuccessfully, litigated in that trial. Additionally, this Court specifically excludes the 25 hours (or 33.5 hours)17 of attorneys’ fees associated with the sanction hearing that were imposed. As noted, the sanction imposed on Dr. Bellafiore must be a consequence of instances where the trial justice found he “acted in bad faith, vexatiously, wantonly, or for oppressive reasons.” Najarian, 911 A.2d at 711 n. 5 (quoting Chambers, 501 U.S. at 45-46, 111 S.Ct. 2123). Although the trial justice made such findings as it related to the differences in Dr. Bellaf-iore’s pretrial disclosures and trial testimony — the trial justice did not make a bad-faith finding as it related to Dr. Bellaf-[522]*522iore’s conduct during the sanction proceedings. In our opinion, to include in Dr. Bellafiore’s monetary sanction the amount of attorneys’ fees incurred by the plaintiff to press the issue of the sanction would be inappropriate. In essence, the court would be sanctioning Dr. Bellafíore for defending against a motion to impose a sanction on him, rather than for any sanctionable conduct. Consequently, we direct the Superi- or Court to enter an order sanctioning Dr. Bellafíore in the amount of $38,398.53.
IV
Conclusion
' For the reasons stated herein, we affirm in part and vacate in part the judgment of the Superior Court. The record shall be returned to the Superior Court.
Justice INDEGLIA did not participate.