WILKINSON, Circuit Judge:
Appellant James E. Davis was convicted of first degree murder in North Carolina state court. After exhausting the state appeals process, see State v. Davis, 305 N.C. 400, 290 S.E.2d 574 (1982), he sought a writ of habeas corpus, pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 2254, in the district court for the Western District of North Carolina. Appellant alleged constitutional violations with respect to his confession to police officers, the admission of evidence, the closing argument of the prosecutor, and the trial judge’s instructions. The district court found no basis for granting the writ. We affirm.
I
The body of Myrtle Wilson Wilder was found in her Asheville, North Carolina home on August 16, 1980. Though she was fully clothed, her underpants were around her knees when her body was discovered. The evidence shows that Mrs. Wilder’s murder was particularly brutal. She had suffered seven or eight stab wounds to the abdominal area, some as deep as five or six inches. Her neck was broken, her face was bruised and scraped, and her wrists slashed. Further investigation revealed signs of strangulation, possibly caused by a whiplash-type injury.
Police investigation of the crime proved unproductive for several weeks, until Officer Lee Warren received information that led him to consider Davis as a possible suspect. The officer left a note at the [170]*170house of appellant’s grandmother asking appellant to come see him. Two days later, on September 4, 1980, appellant came to the station to speak to detectives.
Police gave Davis his Miranda warnings and he signed a written waiver of his rights. For approximately two hours, from 6:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m., detectives questioned appellant concerning Mrs. Wilder’s murder. Davis gave an exculputory statement, and agreed to take a polygraph test. When the equipment was set up for the test, Davis asked what the questions would be. Upon hearing the questions, he changed his mind and refused to take the test. The detectives asked appellant if he would return around 10:00 p.m., after the parties took a dinner break. He agreed, and the detectives drove him home.
When they had finished eating at approximately 10:00 p.m., the detectives radioed the station and learned that appellant had not yet arrived. Aware that the doors leading to detectives’ offices were locked by that time, the detectives drove toward appellant’s house to see if he was out walking. When they found Davis near his house, they offered him a ride, which he accepted by getting into the back seat. The criminal investigation was not mentioned during the ride to the station. In fact, the evidence shows that conversation focused on the latest hairstyles.
At the station, the detectives and appellant went to a 24' X 12' carpeted, air-conditioned conference room, where Davis was again advised of his Miranda rights both orally and in writing. He waived his rights in writing. Shortly after questioning resumed, appellant told the detectives that he no longer wanted to talk about the case. The detectives continued to question Davis, and placed pictures of the crime scene in front of him. Appellant did not want to look at the pictures, became visibly upset, and started to cry. At his request, he was taken to the bathroom and escorted back to the conference room by one of the detectives.
Upon appellant’s return, questioning about the death of Mrs. Wilder resumed. At some point he was again escorted to the bathroom and back. Then, appellant stated that he needed to talk about what had happened, that he had trouble sleeping and could only see Mrs. Wilder’s face. Appellant gave a detailed statement to the detectives confessing to the murder of Mrs. Wilder. The detectives obtained a warrant and placed Davis under arrest.
Appellant was tried and convicted in state court, receiving life imprisonment. He asserts four grounds which he believes warrant issuance of the writ: 1) that his confession was obtained in violation of his Miranda rights, 2) that the trial court’s instructions to the jury impermissibly shifted the burden of persuasion to appellant, 3) that the prosecutor’s closing argument denied him a fair trial, and (4) that the victim’s diary was improperly admitted into evidence.
V
II
Appellant first asserts that his rights under Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966) were violated because detectives continued to question him about Mrs. Wilder’s death after he indicated that he no longer wanted to talk. We conclude, however, that appellant was not in custody at the time he was questioned. Miranda, therefore, is inapplicable.
It is undisputed that appellant was given Miranda warnings on several occasions, and that he signed at least two written waivers of his rights. It is also undisputed that he indicated that he no longer wanted to talk, and that police continued to question him despite his request. Miranda clearly prohibits such police conduct where it applies, see 384 U.S. at 473-74, 86 S.Ct. at 1627, but Miranda applies only when an individual is subject to custodial interrogation. See California v. Beheler, 463 U.S. 1121, 103 S.Ct. 3517, 77 L.Ed.2d 1275 (1983) (per curiam); Oregon v. Mathiason, 429 U.S. 492, 97 S.Ct. 711, 50 L.Ed.2d 714 (1977) (per curiam); Beckwith v. United States, 425 U.S. 341, 96 S.Ct. 1612, 48 [171]*171L.Ed.2d 1 (1976); United States v. Stanley, 597 F.2d 866, 869 (4th Cir.1979).
The Supreme Court has articulated the standard by which “custody” is to be judged. “[T]he ultimate inquiry,” the Court has noted, “is simply whether there is a ‘formal arrest or restraint on freedom of movement’ of the degree associated with a formal arrest.” Beheler, 463 U.S. at 1125, 103 S.Ct. at 3520, quoting Mathiason, 429 U.S. at 495, 97 S.Ct. at 714. See also Moore v. Ballone, 658 F.2d 218, 225 (4th Cir.1981). The issue does not turn on the subjective evaluation of the situation by the defendant or the police officers; instead, the test is an objective one. “[T]he only relevant inquiry is how a reasonable man in the suspect’s position would have understood his situation.” Berkemer v. McCarty, — U.S. -, -, 104 S.Ct. 3138, 3152, 82 L.Ed.2d 317 (1984). Custody does not result merely because an individual is questioned in a “coercive environment,” Mathiason, 429 U.S. at 495, 97 S.Ct. at 714, or is the “focus” of a criminal investigation. Beckwith, 425 U.S. at 349, 96 S.Ct. at 1617.
Applying these guidelines to the facts before us, and mindful of the actual holdings in cases such as Mathiason and Beheler, we find that appellant was not in “custody” for Miranda purposes. Here, as in Mathiason, appellant’s initial contact with police was the result of his voluntary response to their request to speak with him. The total absence of any coercion occasioned by the police note is made evident by the fact that Davis felt free to wait two days before presenting himself at the station.
Conditions at the station were as informal as one could expect. Both sessions took place in large, carpeted, air-conditioned rooms, and appellant was given a soft drink. Though the first session lasted approximately two hours, it was not a marathon session designed to force a confession. The detectives took a dinner break at a reasonable hour, gave appellant a ride home, and agreed to meet later at a mutually convenient time. Appellant apparently understood that he was free to reject police requests for information; after initially agreeing to take a polygraph, he changed his mind and refused. Unless we are to conclude that custody results “simply because the questioning takes place in the station house,” Mathiason, 429 U.S. at 495, 97 S.Ct. at 714, we see nothing on these facts to warrant a finding that appellant was in custody.
Nor do we find it significant that appellant was given a ride to the police station after the break in questioning. The detectives drove to appellant’s neighborhood to see if he was out walking only after they discovered that he had not arrived at the station house by the agreed time. Appellant was offered a ride, not ordered into the car, and he accepted by voluntarily getting into the car. The investigation was not discussed during the ride. In light of the detective’s previous actions — such as stopping questioning for dinner and giving appellant a ride home — we find that the ride back to the police station was insufficient to establish custody and coercion.
A similar conclusion obtains with respect to the fact that police twice escorted appellant to the bathroom and back. The first occasion may be explained by the fact that appellant was unfamiliar with the station house and may not have known his way to the bathroom or back to the conference room. At the time of the second trip, appellant was upset and the detectives’ unwillingness to leave him alone at that time was understandable. Whatever level of coercion may have been inherent in this police escort is insufficient for us to conclude that appellant was in custody, given the other circumstances surrounding his encounter with the police.
Appellant also asserts that the detectives’ failure to tell him he was free to go supports the conclusion that he was in custody. Though informing a suspect that he is not under arrest is one factor frequently considered to show lack of custody, see e.g. Mathiason, 429 U.S. at 495, 97 S.Ct. at 714; Stanley, 597 F.2d at 869, it is [172]*172not a talismanic factor. See e.g., Berkemer v. McCarty, — U.S.-, 104 S.Ct. 3138, 82 L.Ed.2d 317 (1984). Where, as here, the entire context indicates a lack of custody, failure to inform defendant of his status is not dispositive.
Finally, we address the question of whether the reading of Miranda warnings to a suspect should by itself create custody. We think it inadvisable to impose so absolute a rule. Cf Beckwith v. United States, 425 U.S. 341, 96 S.Ct. 1612, 48 L.Ed.2d 1 (1976). To hold that the giving of Miranda warnings automatically disables police from further questioning upon a suspect’s slightest indication to discontinue a dialogue would operate as a substantial disincentive to police to inform suspects of their constitutional protections. It would convert admirable precautionary measures on the part of officers into an investigatory obstruction.1
We recognize that any encounter with police may be both anxious and unpleasant no matter what kind of treatment the individual receives. We do not seek to place upon these sessions an amiable gloss. We emphasize, however, that the totality of the circumstances here demonstrates a natural persistence on the part of police together with a commendable sense of restraint. Such loose-reins behavior is far removed from “the incommunicado interrogation in a police-dominated atmosphere” which Miranda properly deplored. 384 U.S. at 445, 86 S.Ct. at 1612.
Ill
In instructing the jury on the elements of first degree murder, the trial court said:
If the state proves beyond a reasonable doubt or it is admitted that the Defendant intentionally killed Myrtle Wilson Wilder with a deadly weapon, ... the law implies first that the killing was unlawful, and second, that it was done with malice.
Appellant objects to the italicized portion of the charge. He asserts that the trial court’s instruction to the jury on malice unconstitutionally shifted the burden of persuasion to him, in violation of Mullaney v. Wilbur, 421 U.S. 684, 95 S.Ct. 1881, 44 L.Ed.2d 508 (1975). We reject this contention, and hold that a state may legitimately shift a burden of production on an element of the crime to the defendant, as North Carolina has done, so long as the presumed fact is rationally connected to a proven fact. County Court v. Allen, 442 U.S. 140, 99 S.Ct. 2213, 60 L.Ed.2d 777 (1979).2
It is clear that North Carolina law shifts only a burden of production on the element of malice to the defendant, rather than a burden of persuasion. State v. Hankerson, 288 N.C. 632, 220 S.E.2d 575 (1975), rev’d on other grounds, 432 U.S. 233, 97 S.Ct. 2339, 53 L.Ed.2d 306 (1977). The Supreme Court of North Carolina explained the distinction in State v. Simpson, 303 N.C. 439, 451; 279 S.E.2d 542, 550 (1981):
The effect of the presumption is to impose upon the defendant the burden of going forward with or producing some evidence of a lawful reason for the killing or an absence of malice; i.e., that the killing was done in self-defense or in the heat of passion upon sudden provocation. The state is not required to prove malice and unlawfulness unless there is some evidence of their nonexistence, but once such evidence is presented, the state must prove these elements beyond a reasonable doubt.
Regardless of the content of state law, we must normally examine the trial court’s instructions to see what burden was [173]*173actually shifted. See Sandstrom v. Montana, 442 U.S. 510, 514-19, 99 S.Ct. 2450, 2454-56, 61 L.Ed.2d 39 (1979). For reasons explained below, however, we find it unnecessary on the facts of this case to dissect the court’s instructions and we evaluate only the validity of the state law presumption shifting the production burden to the defendant.
Sandstrom required close examination of a judge’s instructions in a context where the precise effect of the instruction was critical. The court examined the instruction that “the law presumes that a person intends the ordinary consequences of his voluntary acts,” id. at 513, 99 S.Ct. at 2453, where lack of intent was “the lone element of the offense at issue in Sandstrom’s trial.” Id. at 521, 99 S.Ct. at 2458. Because the Court found that the jury may have interpreted the instruction as either a conclusive presumption or a persuasion burden shifting presumption, it held the instruction unconstitutional. The Court’s concern over jury confusion is explained by the fact that the confusion may have made a difference in the outcome of the trial; a production burden had clearly been met by the defendant, so the heavier burdens to which he was potentially subjected may have been dispositive on the critical issue.
The present case presents a wholly different situation. Here, it matters not whether the jury interpreted the instruction as shifting a burden of production or some higher burden, because the question of malice was simply not at issue in the case. The controverted question was rather one of who committed the crime. We need not determine what precise burden was shifted by the instructions, because appellant met no burden whatsoever on the malice question. See Fulton v. Warden, 744 F.2d 1026, 1037 (4th Cir.1984) (Phillips, J., dissenting) (recognizing that presence of a disputed issue is critical in Mullaney question). Instead, we need only decide the validity of the clear rule of state law shifting the burden of production to the defendant. If this rule of law is valid, the actual impact of the court’s instructions is irrelevant when a defendant has not met even the burden of production, for there is no danger that he may have suffered from failure to meet only the higher, unconstitutional requirements.
Though the Supreme Court has intimated that a shift in the production burden is permissible, see, e.g., Mullaney, 421 U.S. at 701 n. 28, 702-03 n. 30, 95 S.Ct. at 1891 n. 28, 1891 n. 30; Patterson, 432 U.S. at 230-32, 97 S.Ct. at 2337-38 (Powell, J., dissenting), the question is still an unsettled one. See Francis v. Franklin, — U.S. -,-n. 3, 105 S.Ct. 1965, 1971 n. 3, 85 L.Ed.2d 344 (1985). We hold that a state may constitutionally shift the burden of production to a criminal defendant so long as the presumption relied upon meets the standards of County Court v. Allen, 442 U.S. 140, 99 S.Ct. 2213, 60 L.Ed.2d 777 (1979).
Shifting a production burden simply does not involve the same concerns addressed by the Court in Mullaney. Mullaney is grounded in the standard of proof “beyond a reasonable doubt” required by In re Winship, 397 U.S. 358, 90 S.Ct. 1068, 25 L.Ed.2d 368 (1970). A burden of production shift, however, does not affect that requirement in any way. The defendant need not meet any persuasion burden at all, but instead must only introduce some evidence to dissipate the presumption and require the state to prove the element of the crime beyond a reasonable doubt. Such a shift “has little, if any, impact on the substantive relation between the state and the criminal accused. Instead, placing the burden of production on the defendant is an economical way to screen out issues extraneous to the case at hand and thus to promote efficient litigation.” Jeffries & Stephan, Defenses, Presumptions, and Burden of Proof in the Criminal Law, 88 Yale L.J. 1325, 1334 (1979). See also, Mullaney, 421 U.S. at 703 n. 31, 95 S.Ct. at 1829 n. 31 (“Shifting the burden of persuasion to the defendant places an even greater strain upon him [than shifting the burden of production] since he no longer need only present some evidence with respect to [174]*174the fact at issue; he must affirmatively establish that fact.”) To invalidate production burden shifting presumptions would require the state to disprove convincingly every possible defense even though the defense was not raised at trial. We refuse to establish such a requirement, and evaluate this presumption under the Allen standard.
We have no difficulty concluding that the presumption relied on in this case satisfied the requirement of Allen that the fact presumed be rationally connected to a proven fact. The proven facts in this case, showing a brutal and vicious murder, clearly allow the presumption of malice absent any evidence introduced by the defendant to put malice at issue. We accordingly reject appellant’s challenges to the jury instructions, and find no constitutional infirmity in a presumption of malice from proof of intentional killing with a deadly weapon that shifts to a defendant no more than a burden of production which was never met.
IV
In his closing argument, the prosecutor told the jury:
You know, this case is completely uncontradicted. The facts in this case are completely uncontradicted. When I took this job over two years ago, I came into this Courtroom, put my hand on this Bible right over there, and I took an oath that I would see that justice was done in this country. Every one of these officers in this courtroom are sworn law enforcement officers. Ladies and gentlemen, we have brought the truth into this courtroom. I ask, who is being honest with you? Who is being honest with you?
App. at 237. Appellant contends that this statement denied him the right to a fair trial by vouching for the credibility of witnesses and the prosecutor’s own honesty. He also questions the propriety of a comment by the prosecutor on the hypothetical value of the testimony of an uncalled witness.3 Appellant did not object to either comment at trial but raised the issue for the first time on appeal.
The government, while responding on the merits,4 argues mainly that substantive review of appellant’s allegation is barred by Wainwright v. Sykes, 433 U.S. 72, 97 S.Ct. 2497, 53 L.Ed.2d 594 (1977), because appellant’s failure to object at trial constituted a procedural default. Under North Carolina law, “when counsel makes an improper remark in arguing to the jury, an exception must be taken before the verdict, or the impropriety is waived.” State v. Davis, 305 N.C. 400, 290 S.E.2d 574 (1984); State v. Morgan, 299 N.C. 191, 261 S.E.2d 827 (1980). We agree that Wainwright governs this situation and, finding no cause for the failure to object, hold that the default constituted an independent state procedural ground precluding federal habeas review.
In considering appellant’s arguments on appeal, the North Carolina Supreme Court found the issue procedurally barred due to appellant’s failure to object. See State v. Davis, 290 S.E.2d at 587. Had the court relied exclusively on this state procedural ground, Wainwright would clearly bar federal habeas review absent cause and prejudice. See Wainwright, 433 U.S. at 82, 97 S.Ct. at 2504. See also, Engle v. Isaac, 456 U.S. 107, 124-29, 102 S.Ct. 1558, 1570-72, 71 L.Ed.2d 783 (1982). The court, however, [175]*175went on to discuss the merits of appellant’s claim, concluding that “[ejven had the argument of the prosecutor been properly objected to and a timely exception taken, the remarks complained of were not so prejudicial as to require a new trial.” Id., 305 N.C. at 422, 290 S.E.2d at 587. The issue, therefore, is “whether express reliance on a procedural bar is undone as a procedural default when the state court also addresses the merits.” United States ex rel. Caruso v. Zelinsky, 689 F.2d 435, 439 (3d Cir.1982).
A majority of circuits considering the issue have concluded that Wainwright applies whenever a state court relied on a procedural default regardless of whether it ruled alternatively on the merits. See McCown v. Callahan, 726 F.2d 1 (1st Cir.), cert. denied, — U.S.-, 105 S.Ct. 139, 83 L.Ed.2d 78 (1984); Phillips v. Smith, 717 F.2d 44 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 465 U.S. 1027, 104 S.Ct. 1287, 79 L.Ed.2d 689 (1984); Hall v. Wainwright, 733 F.2d 766 (11th Cir.1984), cert. denied, — U.S.-, 105 S.Ct. 2346, 85 L.Ed.2d 862 (1985); Farmer v. Prast, 721 F.2d 602 (7th Cir.1983); United States ex rel. Caruso v. Zelinsky, 689 F.2d 435 (3d Cir.1982). Some circuits have required simply that the state court rely primarily or substantially on the procedural bar for Wainwright to apply. See Hockenbury v. Sowders, 620 F.2d 111, 115 (6th Cir.1980), cert. denied, 450 U.S. 933, 101 S.Ct. 1395, 67 L.Ed.2d 367 (1981); Dietz v. Solem, 640 F.2d 126, 131-32 & n. 1 (8th Cir.1981). Others, however, hold that a federal court may reach the merits of the habeas claim whenever a state court has discussed the merits. See Hux v. Murphy, 733 F.2d 737 (10th Cir.1984); Thompson v. Estelle, 642 F.2d 996, 998 (5th Cir.1981); Bradford v. Stone, 594 F.2d 1294, 1296 n. 2 (9th Cir.1979). Apparently, the Fourth is the last regional circuit to address the issue fully.5
We hold that Wainwright’s cause and prejudice standard applies on federal habeas review whenever a state court finds procedural default, regardless of whether it alternatively discussed the merits. The policies that prompted the holding in Wainwright are equally applicable whenever a state court relies on its procedural rule, and are not vitiated merely because a discussion of the merits provides an alternative ground. See Phillips, 717 F.2d at 48-49.
The Wainwright court acted in part out of concern for federalism and comity. It noted that the state procedural rule at issue deserved great respect because it was “employed by a coordinate jurisdiction within the federal system.” 433 U.S. at 88, 97 S.Ct. at 2507. See also Engle, 456 U.S. at 128, 102 S.Ct. at 1572. The procedural rule deserves no less respect because it is cast in the form of an alternative holding. “[A]n alternative holding has the same force as a single holding; it is binding precedent.” Zelinsky, 689 F.2d at 440. A state court’s discussion of the merits in the alternative does not detract from the validity of its procedural ruling. It merely reflects the natural tendency of a court to marshal every argument possible in support of its position. As noted in Zelinsky, 689 F.2d at 440, “decisions on procedural grounds are not as satisfying as decisions on the merits, and it is understandable that a court would want to show that it does not think its reliance on a procedural rule is causing any great injustice.” The understandable tendency of courts to hold in the alternative simply does not affect the validity of state procedural rules or the federalism concerns that flow from their existence.
Of course, it is clear after Wainwright that the state appellate court can rely exclusively and rigidly on procedure to avoid the potential weakening of its contemporaneous objection rule. We would be loathe, however, to encourage exclusive reliance upon procedural forfeitures as a means of shielding state convictions from federal col[176]*176lateral attack. Rather, it is desirable to encourage the state appellate courts to apply their procedural rules in a way that exhibits an awareness of the fundamental fairness of the criminal process. Federal courts do no less when reviewing for “plain error” on direct criminal appeal, despite the presence at trial of a procedural default, Fed.R.Crim.P. 52(b). See United States v. Frady, 456 U.S. 152, 102 S.Ct. 1584, 71 L.Ed.2d 816 (1982).
In noting that the prosecutor’s remarks “did not stray so far from the bounds of propriety as to require action by the trial court ex mero motu,” State v. Davis, 290 S.E.2d at 587, the North Carolina Supreme Court appeared to review the trial proceeding under a standard akin to “plain error.” While our holding in no way depends upon whether the alternative holding of the state appellate court on the merits is on “plain error” grounds or otherwise, we note simply the inappropriateness of discarding Wainwright because state appellate courts frequently undertake to review in the same manner authorized for the federal circuits. Moreover, review for “plain error” on state appeal may not involve “the detailed examination of federal law and federal cases often necessary to decide a specific question of federal law,” McCown v. Callahan, 726 F.2d at 3. Habeas review in this situation would thus be without the benefit of mature state consideration of the federal question.
Wainwright is specifically designed to safeguard valid state interests served by a contemporaneous objection rule. 433 U.S. at 88-90, 97 S.Ct. at 2507-08. The Court found respect for this rule justified on several grounds: it increases the accuracy of factual determinations underlying constitutional questions, id. at 88, 97 S.Ct. at 2507, it contributes to finality in criminal litigation, id. at 88-89, 97 S.Ct. at 2507, it prevents “sandbagging” on the part of defense lawyers, id. at 89-90, 97 S.Ct. at 2507-08, and it serves to make the trial of a criminal case in state court “a decisive and portentous event,” id. at 90, 97 S.Ct. at 2508. Were we to hold that state appellate discussion of the merits makes Wainwright inapplicable, these benefits of the rule would be lost where state courts, for whatever reason, felt an obligation to discuss the merits in addition to the procedural bar. The issue would then be open to collateral review without the benefit of factual inquiries at trial, finality interests would be sacrificed, “sandbagging” would again pay returns for attorneys and clients willing to take the risk, and the concentration of efforts on trial would be lessened. While Wainwright spoke of the value of enabling state trial judges to consider promptly the suppression of unlawfully obtained evidence, the state interests behind a rule of contemporaneous objection to improper remarks at closing argument are no less valid. Here prompt objection would permit the trial judge to cut off improper remarks at the outset, to offer the jury a curative instruction, or, at worst, to require a new trial while the evidence was still fresh.
For the reasons stated above — to vindicate federalism concerns, to preserve flexibility and thoroughness in state court adjudication, and to ensure that the goals of state procedural rules are attained — we hold that federal habeas review is barred absent a finding of cause and prejudice where a state relies on a procedural bar, regardless of alternative discussion of the merits.
We find no cause on these facts for the failure to object to the prosecutor’s comments. Appellant advances no justification for this failure, and none is apparent from the record. Because the “cause and prejudice” test is framed in the conjunctive, the absence of cause makes unnecessary an inquiry into prejudice. Accordingly, we find federal habeas review of this issue foreclosed by Wainwright.
Finally, appellant contends that the admission into evidence of the victim’s diary violated his rights of confrontation. Applying the standards of Ohio v. Roberts, 448 U.S. 56, 65-66, 100 S.Ct. 2531, 2538-39, [177]*17765 L.Ed.2d 597 (1980), we find no error in the entry of this item into evidence. The declarant Mrs. Wilder was clearly unavailable due to her death. Moreover, the diary bears adequate “indicia of reliability” to ensure its truthworthiness. Entries were in the victim’s handwriting, and the journal was presumably regularly kept. The writings were unrelated to appellant and dealt with subjects about which the victim had no discernible reason to lie.
VI
We have considered petitioner’s allegations of error, and find them to be without merit. Accordingly, the judgment of the district court is
AFFIRMED.