FILED 1 ORDERED PUBLISHED DEC 17 2015 SUSAN M. SPRAUL, CLERK 2 U.S. BKCY. APP. PANEL OF THE NINTH CIRCUIT 3 UNITED STATES BANKRUPTCY APPELLATE PANEL 4 OF THE NINTH CIRCUIT 5 In re: ) BAP No. EC-14-1180-KuKiTa ) 6 KEVIN WAYNE MARTIN and SUSAN ) Bk. No. 11-62436 MARTIN, ) 7 ) Adv. No. 12-01131 Debtors. ) 8 ______________________________) ) 9 UNITED STATES, ) ) 10 Appellant, ) ) 11 v. ) OPINION ) 12 KEVIN WAYNE MARTIN; SUSAN ) MARTIN, ) 13 ) Appellees. ) 14 ______________________________) 15 Argued and Submitted on November 19, 2015 at Pasadena, California 16 Filed – December 17, 2015 17 Appeal from the United States Bankruptcy Court 18 for the Eastern District of California 19 Honorable W. Richard Lee, Bankruptcy Judge, Presiding 20 Appearances: Boris Kukso argued for appellant United States; 21 Appellees Kevin Wayne Martin and Susan Martin argued pro se. 22 23 Before: KURTZ, KIRSCHER and TAYLOR, Bankruptcy Judges. 24 KURTZ, Bankruptcy Judge: 25 26 27 28
1 1 INTRODUCTION 2 When is a tax return not a tax return? According to an 3 increasing number of courts, including some courts of appeal, the 4 answer is: when the tax return, otherwise wholly compliant with 5 applicable tax laws, is filed a second (or more) late. According 6 to these courts, by way of the 2005 Bankruptcy Code amendments, 7 Congress intended to make a substantial and exceptionally harsh 8 change to nondischargeability law by adding a hanging paragraph 9 at the end of 11 U.S.C. § 523(a)1 defining the term “return” to 10 exclude any taxpayer filing that does not wholly and strictly 11 comply with all applicable return filing requirements, even if 12 the taxing authority itself could and would forgive that 13 noncompliance. Indeed, the United States rejects this statutory 14 interpretation in this appeal. 15 The courts adopting a literal construction of the “return” 16 definition more or less admit that their unforgiving view of 17 congressional intent cannot be squared within the context of 18 § 523(a), or even within the narrower context of the hanging 19 paragraph itself, without running into some significant 20 conundrums. The second sentence of the hanging paragraph 21 expressly includes within the definition of “return” some types 22 of returns that the taxing authority prepares on behalf of the 23 taxpayer, when the taxpayer never gets around to it. Why 24 Congress would want to treat a taxpayer who files a tax return a 25 1 26 Unless specified otherwise, all chapter and section references are to the Bankruptcy Code, 11 U.S.C. §§ 101-1532, and 27 all "Rule" references are to the Federal Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure, Rules 1001-9037. All “Civil Rule” references are to 28 the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.
2 1 month or a week or even a day late – possibly for reasons beyond 2 his or her control – so much more harshly than a taxpayer who 3 never files a tax return on his or her own behalf is a mystery 4 that literal construction adherents never adequately explain. 5 Nor have they adequately explained why, later on in the second 6 sentence of the hanging paragraph, Congress felt a need to 7 explicitly exclude from the “return” definition another type of 8 return filed by taxing authorities on behalf of taxpayers when 9 that exclusion is superfluous if one accepts a literal 10 construction of the first sentence of the hanging paragraph. 11 When one looks beyond the hanging paragraph, at the context 12 of the nondischargeability statute as a whole and Congress’ 13 scheme for nondischargeable debts, one encounters additional, 14 even-more-serious problems with the literal construction of the 15 “return” definition. Section 523(a)(1)(B)(ii), which pre-existed 16 the 2005 amendments, already contains a specific and carefully- 17 balanced treatment of tax debts associated with untimely-filed 18 tax returns. Literal construction of the “return” definition 19 renders § 523(a)(1)(B)(ii) all but meaningless - reducing the 20 potential application of that provision to a minuscule scope. 21 And, according to the literal construction adherents, Congress 22 intended the “return” definition to accomplish this dramatic re- 23 balancing of the dischargeability of tax debt without a single 24 legislative comment to that effect. 25 In light of these concerns arising from a contextual reading 26 of the hanging paragraph, we reject the literal construction of 27 the “return” definition. We further conclude that there is 28 binding Ninth Circuit authority predating the 2005 amendments
3 1 instructing us how to determine when a taxpayer filing should be 2 treated as a return for nondischargeability purposes and that 3 authority was not abrogated by the 2005 amendments. 4 The bankruptcy court erred because it declined to apply the 5 existing Ninth Circuit test as to what constitutes a “return,” so 6 we VACATE the bankruptcy court’s ruling declaring the Martins’ 7 tax debt dischargeable, and we REMAND so that the bankruptcy 8 court can apply the Ninth Circuit test. 9 FACTS 10 The facts are undisputed. The Martins did not file their 11 tax returns for 2004, 2005 and 2006 at the time they were due. 12 Consequently, the Internal Revenue Service (“IRS”) conducted an 13 audit examination beginning in June 2008 to fix the amount of the 14 Martins’ tax liability for those three years. Without the 15 benefit of the Martins’ self-reported income tax data in the form 16 of tax returns, the IRS duly followed the deficiency and 17 assessment procedures set forth in the Internal Revenue Code. 18 See 26, U.S.C. § 6201, et seq. In August 2008, following the 19 completion of the audit examination, the IRS issued a notice of 20 deficiency for each of the three tax years. 21 The Martins did not respond to the notices of deficiency, 22 but the notices did spur the Martins to hire a new accountant to 23 prepare the missing tax returns. In December 2008, the 24 accountant signed and completed the Martins’ tax returns for 25 2004, 2005 and 2006, but the Martins did not get around to 26 signing and filing the tax returns until six months later in June 27 2009. There is no evidence explaining the reason for the 28 Martins’ several-year delay in preparing their 2004, 2005 and
4 1 2006 tax returns, nor is there any evidence explaining the 2 Martins’ delay in signing and filing the completed returns.2 3 2 4 While it does not constitute evidence in the strict sense, at the summary judgment oral argument, the Martins attempted to 5 explain the delays. With respect to their initial failure to timely prepare their 2004, 2005 and 2006 tax returns, Ms. Martin 6 stated: 7 [W]e had problems with our previous accountant. Her 8 husband died and she had to let us go and -- and so she -- basically we were trying to -- she had her assistant 9 try to finish us up. And she got sick and held on to our taxes for over a year. And we repeatedly tried to 10 get them back from her, and she kept saying she was going to finish them. 11 12 And then by the time we realized -- finally we demanded them back, and we had to find a new accountant 13 who had to start fresh. And that was Andrea, and that's when she started reassessing and doing all our 14 taxes to help get us caught up. 15 Hr’g Tr. (Aug. 29, 2013) at 6:4-15. With respect to the six- 16 month delay in signing and filing the completed returns, the bankruptcy court and Ms. Martin engaged in the following 17 colloquy: 18 THE COURT: Why didn't the tax returns get filed [six] 19 months earlier, when the accountant signed them?
20 SUSAN MARTIN: Because she actually finished them on 12-18-08. And I believe we were waiting for two other 21 years that were behind, '07 and '08, to be completed before we put them all in together. 22 23 THE COURT: Why? Why. Why didn't -- why didn't --
24 SUSAN MARTIN: I don't know. I -- I just feel like we were trying to get it all in at once. I -- I guess 25 that's why we waited. I was wondering the same thing, 26 why we didn't get them in right away. But we had so many back taxes that we were just trying to get them 27 all done. And that's why they sat for a little while.
28 (continued...)
5 1 Meanwhile, having not heard from the Martins, the IRS made 2 assessments against the Martins for the 2004, 2005 and 2006 tax 3 years in March 2009. Thereafter, the IRS twice sent the Martins 4 notices of the unpaid taxes and demands for payment – once in 5 March 2009 and another time in April 2009. The IRS then gave the 6 Martins notice of its intent to collect the assessed taxes by 7 levy. 8 Only after the IRS threatened to collect the unpaid taxes 9 did the Martins finally file their 2004, 2005 and 2006 tax 10 returns. The IRS accepted the untimely returns and adjusted the 11 Martins’ tax liability based on the information set forth in the 12 returns. The IRS adjusted their 2004 tax liability downward by 13 roughly $1,000 (from $18,432 to $17,358), their 2005 tax 14 liability upward by roughly $5,000 (from $9,928 to $14,852), and 15 their 2006 tax liability downward by roughly $5,000 (from $32,133 16 to $27,010). 17 The Martins commenced their chapter 7 bankruptcy case in 18 November 2011 and commenced pro se the adversary proceeding from 19 which this appeal arises in July 2012. By way of their 20 complaint, they sought a determination that their 2004, 2005 and 21 2006 tax debt was dischargeable. The IRS responded to the 22 complaint by alleging that the subject tax debt was 23 nondischargeable pursuant to § 523(a)(1)(B)(i), as a tax debt for 24 which a tax return was required but never filed.3 25 2 26 (...continued) Hr’g Tr. (Aug. 29, 2013) at 5:7-19. 27 3 Ultimately, the IRS conceded the dischargeability of the 28 (continued...)
6 1 The IRS filed a summary judgment motion based on the 2 undisputed facts. The bankruptcy court denied the IRS’s summary 3 judgment motion and instead, on the undisputed facts, granted 4 judgment in favor of the Martins. In a thoughtful, thorough and 5 detailed memorandum of decision, the bankruptcy court rejected 6 the IRS’s legal theories attempting to explain why a tax return 7 filed post-assessment is the functional equivalent of no tax 8 return at all for both tax purposes and nondischargeability 9 purposes. 10 The bankruptcy court also grappled with the meaning of the 11 word “return” for purposes of the nondischargeability statute, 12 both before and after the 2005 Bankruptcy Code amendments. 13 Ultimately, the bankruptcy court held that the correct standard 14 for determining whether a taxpayer filing qualified as a return 15 for purposes of the nondischargeability statute had not changed 16 as a result of the 2005 amendments. According to the bankruptcy 17 court, the test established in the tax court decision of Beard v. 18 Commissioner, 82 T.C. 766, 774–79 (1984), aff'd 793 F.2d 139 (6th 19 Cir. 1986), should be used to determine whether the debtor 20 taxpayer had filed a return. The Beard test as articulated in 21 Ninth Circuit authority requires courts to consider the following 22 factors: 23 (1) it must purport to be a return; (2) it must be executed under penalty of perjury; (3) it must contain 24 sufficient data to allow calculation of tax; and (4) it must represent an honest and reasonable attempt to 25 26 3 (...continued) 27 additional amount assessed for 2005 based on the Martins’ 2005 tax return. Nor did it contest the dischargeability of the 28 penalties it assessed and the interest accrued on the penalties.
7 1 satisfy the requirements of the tax law. 2 United States v. Hatton (In re Hatton), 220 F.3d 1057, 1060–61 3 (9th Cir. 2000) (“Hatton II”) (citing United States v. Hindenlang 4 (In re Hindenlang), 164 F.3d 1029, 1033 (6th Cir. 1999)). 5 Instead of utilizing the version of the Beard test as 6 applied in Hatton II and In re Hindenlang, the bankruptcy court 7 utilized a slightly different version of the Beard test. Whereas 8 the honest-and reasonable inquiry in the Hatton/Hindenlang 9 version is broad in scope and at least partially subjective in 10 focus, the honest-and-reasonable inquiry in the version of the 11 Beard test utilized by the bankruptcy court was narrow in scope 12 and exclusively objective in focus. The bankruptcy court only 13 considered the face of the Martins’ tax filings and looked at the 14 form and content of those filings in order to determine, from an 15 objective standpoint, that the Martins’ filings for the 2004, 16 2005 and 2006 tax years constituted “an honest and reasonable 17 attempt to satisfy the requirements of the tax law.” 18 The bankruptcy court concluded that the Martins’ 2004, 2005 19 and 2006 tax filings qualified as returns for nondischargeability 20 purposes and granted judgment in their favor on that basis. The 21 IRS timely filed its notice of appeal on April 14, 2014. 22 JURISDICTION 23 The bankruptcy court had jurisdiction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. 24 §§ 1334 and 157(b)(2)(I), and we have jurisdiction under 25 28 U.S.C. § 158. 26 ISSUE 27 Did the bankruptcy court apply the correct legal standard 28 for determining whether the Martins’ tax filings qualified as tax
8 1 returns for purposes of the nondischargeability statute? 2 STANDARD OF REVIEW 3 This appeal presents a question of statutory construction, 4 which is a question of law we review de novo. Samson v. W. 5 Capital Partners, LLC (In re Blixseth), 684 F.3d 865, 869 (9th 6 Cir. 2012) (per curiam). 7 DISCUSSION 8 A. The Parties’ Positions 9 In this appeal, the IRS has advocated two distinct 10 positions: an official, preferred position and an unofficial, 11 fall-back position. Officially, the IRS contends that the 12 dischargeability of income tax debt associated with a late-filed 13 tax return should hinge on whether the taxpayer filed the return 14 before or after the IRS made any assessment. This position is 15 not new for the IRS. See, e.g., Mallo v. I.R.S. (In re Mallo), 16 774 F.3d 1313, 1325-27 (10th Cir. 2014); Wogoman v. I.R.S. 17 (In re Wogoman), 475 B.R. 239, 250 (10th Cir. BAP 2012); see also 18 IRS Chief Counsel Notice CC–2010–016, available at 2010 WL 19 3617597. 20 Alternately and unofficially, the IRS contends that the 21 Ninth Circuit’s version of the Beard test is sufficient to 22 accomplish its litigation goal in this appeal. According to the 23 IRS, if the bankruptcy court here had applied the Ninth Circuit 24 version of the Beard test, it should have and would have 25 concluded that the Martins’ 2004, 2005 and 2006 tax returns do 26 not qualify as returns for nondischargeability purposes. 27 The Martins similarly contend that the Beard test applies, 28 but they insist that the bankruptcy court correctly determined
9 1 under the Beard test that their 2004, 2005 and 2006 tax returns 2 qualify as returns for nondischargeability purposes. 3 Notably, neither side here advocates in favor of the literal 4 construction of the “return” definition that Congress added to 5 the nondischargeability statute as part of the 2005 Bankruptcy 6 Code amendments. Indeed, in this case and in other cases, the 7 IRS expressly has rejected the literal construction and has 8 stated that the literal construction leads to “overly harsh” 9 results. In re Wogoman, 475 B.R. at 250. Instead, the IRS has 10 advocated for its less draconian approach focusing on whether the 11 taxpayer filing occurred before or after an IRS tax assessment. 12 Id. 13 Even though neither side here supports the literal 14 construction of the “return” definition, in light of the 15 increasing number of courts that have adopted that construction, 16 our analysis necessarily focuses on that approach first. Before 17 undertaking that analysis, however, we first describe the legal 18 state of affairs in the Ninth Circuit before Congress added the 19 “return” definition to the nondischargeability statute. 20 B. The Ninth Circuit Legal Landscape Before BAPCPA4 21 Section 523(a)(1)(B)(i) excepts from discharge tax debt when 22 the debtor taxpayer was required to file a tax return but did not 23 do so. Cal. Franchise Tax Bd. v. Jackson (In re Jackson), 24 184 F.3d 1046, 1050 (9th Cir. 1999). “The policy behind this 25 subsection is that a debtor should not be permitted to discharge 26 27 4 The Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection 28 Act, Pub.L. No. 109–8, 119 Stat. 23 (2005) (“BAPCPA”).
10 1 a tax liability based upon a required tax return that was never 2 filed.” Id. at 1052 (citing 3 NORTON BANKRUPTCY LAW AND PRACTICE 2d 3 § 47:6, 47–15 (1997)). Meanwhile, § 523(a)(1)(B)(ii) excepts 4 from discharge tax debt associated with untimely filed tax 5 returns filed within two years of the debtor’s bankruptcy filing, 6 and § 523(a)(1)(C) excepts from discharge tax debt associated 7 with tax returns that are fraudulent or evasive. See 8 In re Hindenlang, 164 F.3d at 1032; see also 4 COLLIER ON BANKRUPTCY 9 ¶ 523.07[3],[4] (Alan N. Resnick & Henry J. Sommer, eds., 16th 10 ed. rev. 2015). 11 In United States v. Hatton (In re Hatton) (“Hatton I”), 12 216 B.R. 278, 282 (9th Cir. BAP 1997), this Panel adopted for 13 purposes of § 523(a)(1)(B)(i) the meaning of “return” set forth 14 in Beard. Beard held that a document qualifies as a return if: 15 (1) it must purport to be a return; (2) it must be executed under penalty of perjury; (3) it must contain 16 sufficient data to allow calculation of tax; and (4) it must represent an honest and reasonable attempt to 17 satisfy the requirements of the tax law. 18 In re Hindenlang, 164 F.3d at 1033. Hatton I applied the Beard 19 test in upholding the bankruptcy court’s finding that the debtor 20 had filed a return within the meaning of § 523(a)(1)(B)(i). 21 Hatton I reasoned that the debtor taxpayer came close enough to 22 filing a return by meeting with the IRS, by acquiescing to the 23 substitute return the IRS filed on the debtor taxpayer’s behalf, 24 by acknowledging his liability for 1983 taxes in the amount set 25 forth in the substitute return, and by entering into an 26 installment payment agreement, pursuant to which debtor agreed to 27 pay his delinquent taxes at a rate of $200 per month. 28 The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed. Hatton II,
11 1 220 F.3d at 1060–61. Hatton II rejected Hatton I’s attempted 2 expansion of the Beard test to include a debtor taxpayer who had 3 not signed any document under penalty of perjury and who “made 4 every attempt to avoid paying his taxes” until the IRS sent the 5 debtor taxpayer a letter threatening to levy on his wages and 6 bank accounts and to seize his property. Id. at 1061. But 7 Hatton II did not throw out the baby with the bath water. For 8 purposes of § 523(a)(1)(B)(i), Hatton II explicitly adopted 9 Beard’s definition of return, as articulated in 10 In re Hindenlang.5 11 By adopting In re Hindenlang’s version of the Beard test, 12 Hatton II sub silentio overruled, at least in part, another Panel 13 decision – United States v. Nunez (In re Nunez), 232 B.R. 778, 14 783 (9th Cir. BAP 1999). In re Nunez adopted a slightly 15 16 5 There is nothing in Hatton II suggesting that it adopted 17 other aspects of In re Hindenlang, particularly In re Hindenlang’s holding that post-assessment tax returns filed 18 by the taxpayer never qualify as returns for purposes of 19 § 523(a)(1)(B). To the contrary, Hatton II’s analysis – especially its reliance on the Beard test to determine whether 20 the taxpayer filed a return – is inconsistent with In re Hindenlang’s pre- or post-assessment test. As stated in 21 one persuasive bankruptcy court decision: 22 Had the Hatton court adopted the Hindenlang [pre- or 23 post-assessment] Rule, it would not have needed to consider whether the Debtor had executed the 24 submissions under penalty of perjury or the Debtor's subjective intent post assessment. The court would 25 have simply determined that the debtor's post 26 assessment submissions, could not as a matter of law, constitute returns under § 523(a)(1)(B). 27 Rushing v. United States (In re Rushing), 273 B.R. 223, 227 28 (Bankr. D. Ariz. 2001).
12 1 different version of the Beard test. Following Savage v. I.R.S. 2 (In re Savage), 218 B.R. 126, 132 (10th Cir. BAP 1998), 3 In re Nunez narrowed the honesty-and-reasonableness prong of the 4 Beard test to examine only what appeared on the face of the 5 taxpayer’s filing in order to ascertain whether that filing 6 constituted “an honest and genuine endeavor to satisfy the law.” 7 In re Nunez, 232 B.R. at 783 (quoting In re Savage, 218 B.R. at 8 132). In re Nunez, therefore, excluded from its honesty-and- 9 reasonableness analysis the length of the delay in the taxpayer’s 10 filing, the reason for the delay and the number of tax years for 11 which timely filings were missed. Id. It is impossible to 12 reconcile this aspect of In re Nunez with Hatton II’s honesty- 13 and-reasonableness analysis, which largely hinged on the delay in 14 taxpayer compliance. See Hatton II, 220 F.3d at 1061. 15 In short, in the Ninth Circuit, the Hatton II/ 16 In re Hindenlang version of the Beard test indisputably governed 17 the definition of the term “return” for purposes of determining 18 the nondischargeability of tax debts, at least until the 19 enactment of BAPCPA. In the next section, we attempt to discern 20 how (if at all) BAPCPA changed the legal landscape. 21 C. The Impact of BAPCPA on the Nondischargeability of Tax Debts 22 Recall that, when Congress first enacted the Bankruptcy 23 Code in 1978, it specifically noted that § 523(a)(1)(B) 24 represented a careful balancing of the competing interests of the 25 debtor, the taxing authority, and the debtor’s other creditors. 26 See Maryland v. Ciotti (In re Ciotti), 638 F.3d 276, 279 (4th 27 Cir. 2011) (citing S.Rep. No. 95–989, at 14 (1978), reprinted in 28 1978 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5787, 5800)). Congress further stated that
13 1 § 523(a)(1)(B) reflected its intent that “tax claims which are 2 nondischargeable, despite a lack of priority, are those to whose 3 staleness the debtor contributed by some wrong-doing or serious 4 fault.” S.Rep. No. 95–989, at 14 (1978), reprinted in 1978 5 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5787, 5800 (emphasis added). 6 In contrast, when Congress enacted BAPCPA, it did not offer 7 any similarly specific statement of its legislative rationale for 8 adding a definition of “return” into the Code’s 9 nondischargeability statute. In re Mallo, 774 F.3d at 1327.6 10 But BAPCPA was accompanied by a general statement of legislative 11 intent indicating that the 2005 amendments as a whole were 12 motivated by four general factors: 13 the “recent escalation of consumer bankruptcy filings,” the “significant losses . . . associated with 14 bankruptcy filings,” the fact that the “bankruptcy system has loopholes and incentives that allow 15 16 6 Congress did explain the second sentence of the hanging 17 paragraph, as follows: 18 Income Tax Returns Prepared by Tax Authorities. 19 Section 714 of the Act amends section 523(a) of the Bankruptcy Code to provide that a return prepared 20 pursuant to section 6020(a) of the Internal Revenue Code, or similar State or local law, constitutes filing 21 a return (and the debt can be discharged), but that a return filed on behalf of a taxpayer pursuant to 22 section 6020(b) of the Internal Revenue Code, or 23 similar State or local law, does not constitute filing a return (and the debt cannot be discharged). 24 H.R. REP. 109-31(I), at 103 (2005), reprinted in 2005 25 U.S.C.C.A.N. 88, 167. It seems odd that Congress would bother to 26 explain the relatively minuscule effect of the second sentence of the hanging paragraph but not offer any legislative comment on 27 the first sentence, which literal construction adherents claim dramatically altered the nondischargeability of tax debt 28 associated with untimely filed tax returns.
14 1 and—sometimes—even encourage opportunistic personal filings and abuse,” and “the fact that some bankruptcy 2 debtors are able to repay a significant portion of their debts.” 3 4 In re Ciotti, 638 F.3d at 279 (citing H.R.Rep. No. 109–31, at 3-5 5 (2005), reprinted in 2005 U.S.C.C.A.N. 88, at 90–92). 6 In any event, BAPCPA added the “return” definition into the 7 nondischargeability statute in a hanging paragraph tacked onto 8 the end of § 523(a) and often cited as § 523(a)(*). The hanging 9 paragraph consists of two sentences, the first of which defines 10 the term “return” and the second of which further refines that 11 definition by explicitly including a certain type of return 12 prepared by the taxing authority on behalf of the taxpayer and by 13 expressly excluding another. The full text of the hanging 14 paragraph provides as follows: 15 For purposes of this subsection, the term “return” means a return that satisfies the requirements of 16 applicable nonbankruptcy law (including applicable filing requirements). Such term includes a return 17 prepared pursuant to section 6020(a) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, or similar State or local law, or 18 a written stipulation to a judgment or a final order entered by a nonbankruptcy tribunal, but does not 19 include a return made pursuant to section 6020(b) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, or a similar State 20 or local law. 21 11 U.S.C. § 523(a)(*). 22 A number of courts, including several Courts of Appeal, have 23 addressed the issue of what the “return” definition means, and 24 many of them have held that the term “applicable filing 25 requirements” is unambiguous and that the plain and ordinary 26 meaning of the term necessarily includes time deadlines for 27 filing returns as stated in the Internal Revenue Code, 26 U.S.C. 28 § 6072(a), and/or in equivalent state statutes. Therefore, these
15 1 literal construction courts have concluded that untimely returns 2 are not returns at all for purposes of the nondischargeability 3 statute. See, e.g., Fahey v. Massachusetts Dep’t of Revenue 4 (In re Fahey), 779 F.3d 1, 4-5 (1st Cir. 2015); In re Mallo, 5 774 F.3d at 1321; McCoy v. Miss. State Tax Comm'n (In re McCoy), 6 666 F.3d 924, 928, 932 (5th Cir. 2012). 7 The literal construction adherents have not been deterred by 8 the perceived harshness resulting from their reading of the 9 statute. They rely heavily (if not exclusively) on the plain 10 language of the phrase “applicable filing requirements” to 11 conclude that Congress intended by way of the “return” definition 12 in the hanging paragraph to except from discharge the tax debts 13 of all taxpayers whose tax returns do not strictly comply with 14 all filing requirements – including time deadlines. See, e.g., 15 In re Fahey, 779 F.3d at 4-5; In re Mallo, 774 F.3d at 1321; 16 In re McCoy, 666 F.3d at 932. In doing so, they gloss over one 17 of the most important rules of plain meaning statutory 18 construction: that the meaning of a statutory term only is 19 considered plain and unambiguous if the term is clearly 20 understood in the context of the words surrounding it and in the 21 context of the larger statutory scheme. 22 The Supreme court reiterated the vital importance of 23 contextual reading in Yates v. United States, 135 S. Ct. 1074, 24 1081-82 (2015). Yates emphasized that the clarity of statutory 25 language only can be measured in “the specific context in which 26 that language is used, and the broader context of the statute as 27 a whole.” Id. at 1081 (quoting Robinson v. Shell Oil Co., 28 519 U.S. 337, 341 (1997)). While the Court’s ruling in Yates was
16 1 a plurality decision, there was no controversy amongst the 2 Justices about the critical importance of contextual reading. In 3 fact, the Yates dissent, in which four Justices joined, was even 4 more compelling on this point: 5 I agree with the plurality (really, who does not?) that context matters in interpreting statutes. We do not 6 “construe the meaning of statutory terms in a vacuum.” Rather, we interpret particular words “in their context 7 and with a view to their place in the overall statutory scheme.” And sometimes that means, as the plurality 8 says, that the dictionary definition of a disputed term cannot control. 9 10 Id. at 1092 (Justice Kagan dissenting) (citations omitted). 11 The more one considers the phrase “applicable filing 12 requirements” in context, the more doubtful the literal 13 construction becomes. First, within the hanging paragraph 14 itself, the second sentence does not square with the so-called 15 ordinary meaning of the term “applicable filing requirements” 16 found in the first sentence. The literal construction of 17 “applicable filing requirements” effectively excepts from 18 discharge all taxes associated with untimely-filed returns, but 19 the second sentence adds right back into the definition returns 20 prepared by taxing authorities under 26 U.S.C. § 6020(a) or under 21 equivalent state statutes. That subsection provides: 22 (a) Preparation of return by Secretary.--If any person shall fail to make a return required by this title or 23 by regulations prescribed thereunder, but shall consent to disclose all information necessary for the 24 preparation thereof, then, and in that case, the Secretary may prepare such return, which, being signed 25 by such person, may be received by the Secretary as the return of such person. 26 27 26 U.S.C. § 6020(a). Thus, under the literal construction of the 28 hanging paragraph, a debtor taxpayer who is one month or one day
17 1 or even one hour late in filing his or her return will have his 2 associated tax debt excepted from discharge, whereas a debtor 3 taxpayer who never bothers to file his or her own return can 4 discharge his or her associated tax debt if the IRS fortuitously 5 prepares a return on that person’s behalf. 6 Why would Congress want to treat debtor taxpayers who do 7 nothing on their own to comply with their return filing 8 obligations so much better than debtor taxpayers who – perhaps 9 for reasons beyond their control – miss the filing deadline by as 10 little as a day but then conscientiously complete and file their 11 return? The literal construction adherents have an answer to 12 this question, but that answer is hardly persuasive. The literal 13 construction adherents speculate that Congress wanted to make 14 available to the taxing authorities a “carrot” they could offer 15 to formerly uncooperative taxpayers to encourage their 16 cooperation going forward. In re Fahey, 779 F.3d at 7; 17 In re Mallo, 774 F.3d at 1324; In re McCoy, 666 F.3d at 931. 18 This makes no sense. The literal construction adherents 19 admit (at least some of them do) that it is extremely rare for 20 taxing authorities to engage in the expensive and time-consuming 21 process of preparing tax returns on behalf of taxpayers. See, 22 e.g., In re Fahey, 779 F.3d at 6-7. More importantly, the 23 literal construction of the “return” definition in reality 24 creates an incentive for impoverished taxpayers who already are 25 late in filing one or more tax returns to further delay, with the 26 hope that they would be some of the lucky few for whom the taxing 27 authorities decide to prepare returns on the taxpayers’ behalf 28 (which then would enable them under the literal construction to
18 1 obtain a discharge of an otherwise nondischargeable tax debt). 2 When read with a literal construction, the disconnect 3 between the first and second sentences of the hanging paragraph 4 does not end there. In the last part of the second sentence, the 5 hanging paragraph excludes from the definition of “return” 6 returns prepared by taxing authorities under 26 U.S.C. § 6020(b) 7 or under equivalent state statutes. That subsection provides in 8 relevant part: 9 (b) Execution of return by Secretary.-- 10 (1) Authority of Secretary to execute return.--If any person fails to make any return required by 11 any internal revenue law or regulation made thereunder at the time prescribed therefor, or 12 makes, willfully or otherwise, a false or fraudulent return, the Secretary shall make such 13 return from his own knowledge and from such information as he can obtain through testimony or 14 otherwise. 15 26 U.S.C. § 6020(b). Thus, according to the literal construction 16 adherents, even though the first sentence of the hanging 17 paragraph already excludes all late-filed returns from the 18 definition of “return,” Congress felt it necessary (supposedly 19 for the sake of clarity) to repeat one tiny aspect of this 20 exclusion one sentence later – the exclusion with respect to § 21 6020(b) returns, which by definition are untimely. See, e.g., In 22 re Fahey, 779 F.3d at 7; In re Mallo, 774 F.3d at 1324. Many 23 literal construction adherents acknowledge that a statute should, 24 if possible, be construed in a manner that avoids rendering any 25 part of it redundant. See, e.g., In re Fahey, 779 F.3d at 6; 26 In re Mallo, 774 F.3d at 1317. Indeed, In re Fahey cites to 27 TRW Inc. v. Andrews, 534 U.S. 19, 31 (2001), which stated: “[i]t 28 is a cardinal principle of statutory construction that a statute
19 1 ought, upon the whole, to be so construed that, if it can be 2 prevented, no clause, sentence, or word shall be superfluous, 3 void, or insignificant.” Id. (citations and internal quotation 4 marks omitted and emphasis added). 5 The literal construction adherents offer little to explain 6 their acceptance of the redundancy created by their 7 interpretation of the hanging paragraph. According to them, 8 Congress likely was redundant for the sake of clarity. But this 9 explanation is wholly at odds with the cardinal principle of 10 statutory construction referenced immediately above. 11 Alternately, the literal construction adherents dismiss the 12 redundancy as insignificant, especially in light of the plain 13 meaning of the term “applicable filing requirements.” See, e.g., 14 In re Fahey, 779 F.3d at 7. This reasoning not only is circular 15 but also undermines a contextual reading of the statute. 16 Assuming the literal construction of the term “applicable 17 filing requirements” already has not collapsed under the weight 18 of the contextual difficulties found within the hanging paragraph 19 itself, another more-extreme level of difficulties awaits within 20 § 523(a)(1)(B)(ii). In that subparagraph, as originally enacted 21 in 1978, Congress clearly excepted from discharge any and all tax 22 debts associated with untimely filed returns that were filed 23 within two years of the debtor’s bankruptcy petition filing. 24 In re Ciotti, 638 F.3d at 279. Before BAPCPA, there was no 25 genuine dispute regarding the broad coverage of this 26 subparagraph. See id. After BAPCPA, at least under the literal 27 construction, the once-expansive coverage of this subparagraph 28 has been dramatically reduced to an infinitesimal scope – a scope
20 1 bordering on and approaching zero. As the literal construction 2 adherents would have it, this subparagraph post-BAPCPA only would 3 apply to § 6020(a) returns, since § 6020(a) returns are the only 4 type of untimely returns that fall within the definition of 5 “return” under the literal construction. See, e.g., In re Fahey, 6 779 F.3d at 6; In re Mallo, 774 F.3d at 1323-24. 7 Structurally, interpreting the definitional hanging 8 paragraph in a way that dramatically alters the coverage of 9 § 523(a)(1)(B)(ii) is an excellent example of “the tail wagging 10 the dog.” This structural concern is the least of our concerns. 11 The literal construction also renders § 523(a)(1)(B)(ii) all but 12 meaningless. The literal construction adherents explain away 13 this concern by suggesting that, while “meaningless” is not okay 14 under the cardinal rule disfavoring interpretations that render 15 part of a statute superfluous, “all but meaningless” is fine. 16 See, e.g., In re Fahey, 779 F.3d at 6; In re Mallo, 774 F.3d at 17 1323-24. 18 And yet we have an even more significant concern. The 19 Supreme Court disfavors interpretations of ambiguous Bankruptcy 20 Code provisions (and amendments) that impose major changes in 21 pre-existing practice in the absence of at least some discussion 22 in the legislative history. See Dewsnup v. Timm, 502 U.S. 410, 23 419 (1992). The literal construction adherents reason that this 24 concern is unjustified because the “return” definition is 25 unambiguous. But our contextual reading of the statutory text 26 convinces us otherwise. 27 At the outermost circle of contextual reading, we must 28 consider how the literal construction of the term “applicable
21 1 filing requirements” fits within Congress’ statutory scheme for 2 excepting debts from discharge. Recall that Congress’ original 3 Bankruptcy Code enactment of § 523(a)(1)(B) embodied a careful 4 balancing of the competing interests of the debtor, taxing 5 authorities and the debtor’s other creditors. See In re Ciotti, 6 638 F.3d at 279 (citing S.Rep. No. 95–989, at 14 (1978), 7 reprinted in 1978 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5787, 5800)). Nothing in the term 8 “applicable filing requirements” or in the four general factors 9 that served as the impetus for BAPCPA manifests an intent to 10 effect a sea-change in how Congress chose to balance the 11 dischargeability of tax debts associated with untimely filed 12 returns. 13 The Supreme Court before BAPCPA recognized that “exceptions 14 to discharge should be confined to those plainly expressed,” 15 Kawaauhau v. Geiger, 523 U.S. 57, 62 (1998) (quoting Gleason v. 16 Thaw, 236 U.S. 558, 562 (1915)), and the Supreme Court after 17 BAPCPA continues to adhere to this same principle. Bullock v. 18 BankChampaign, N.A., 133 S. Ct. 1754, 1760 (2013). Here, in 19 light of our contextual reading of the term “applicable filing 20 requirements,” we are not persuaded that the statutory text, as 21 amended by BAPCPA, manifests a plainly expressed intent to re- 22 balance the nondischargeability of tax debts associated with 23 untimely filed tax returns. 24 D. Application of the Correct Definition of “Return” to this 25 Appeal 26 Our rejection of the literal construction of the “return” 27 definition leaves us with the task of articulating what the 28 definition of “return” in the hanging paragraph is supposed to
22 1 mean. The generic terms “applicable bankruptcy law” and 2 “applicable filing requirements” necessarily reflect that the 3 answer will depend on which nonbankruptcy laws are applicable 4 (federal or state or local) and what the applicable filing 5 requirements say. “[N]early all courts” pre-BAPCPA utilized some 6 version of the Beard test. In re Mallo, 774 F.3d at 1318. In 7 other words, for purposes of determining the dischargeability of 8 federal income tax debt, the “return” definition added by 9 Congress in 2005 effectively codified the Beard test, except that 10 Congress in the second sentence of the hanging paragraph carved 11 out some specific rules for tax returns prepared by taxing 12 authorities.7 13 In this appeal, in the context of late-filed federal income 14 tax returns prepared and filed by the taxpayers, there is no 15 convincing or persuasive indication that BAPCPA or the hanging 16 paragraph abrogated Hatton II’s holding that we should use 17 In re Hindenlang’s version of the Beard test – a test derived 18 from nonbankruptcy law – to determine whether the Martins’ 19 untimely tax returns qualify as tax returns for 20 nondischargeability purposes. That version of the Beard test 21 provides: 22 (1) it must purport to be a return; (2) it must be executed under penalty of perjury; (3) it must contain 23 sufficient data to allow calculation of tax; and (4) it must represent an honest and reasonable attempt to 24 satisfy the requirements of the tax law. 25 26 7 27 We express no opinion on what “return” means under applicable nonbankruptcy law when state tax returns are in play, 28 as that issue is not properly before us.
23 1 In re Hindenlang, 164 F.3d at 1033.8 2 Similar to what this Panel held in In re Nunez, the 3 bankruptcy court here concluded that it should utilize a 4 different version of the Beard test. In this alternate version, 5 the prong of the test focusing on the honesty and reasonableness 6 of the debtor’s efforts to file the return is narrow in scope and 7 considers only the form and substance of the purported return 8 while ignoring the length of delay, the reason for the delay, and 9 the number of tax years missed. As we stated at the outset of 10 this discussion, this alternate version of the Beard test is 11 inconsistent with the holding and reasoning set forth in 12 Hatton II, so we cannot uphold the bankruptcy court’s usage of 13 this alternate test. 14 Hatton II offered two distinct reasons why the taxpayer 15 there did not satisfy the Beard test. Hatton II, 220 F.3d at 16 1061. First, Hatton II explained the the taxpayer had not signed 17 any document under penalty of perjury, so the second Beard test 18 factor was not met. Id. In addition, Hatton II explained that 19 8 20 The IRS follows the Beard test in defining the term “return” under many circumstances. As the bankruptcy court noted 21 in its Memorandum Decision: 22 The IRS has referenced the Beard Test in its revenue 23 rulings and other materials. See Rev. Rul. 2005-59, 2005-2 C.B. 505 (2005) (clarifying when documents 24 constitute valid returns under Beard Test in context of joint filers); I.R.S. Chief Couns. Notice CC-2004-032, 25 2004 WL 3210764 (Sept. 9, 2004) ("The four part test 26 set forth in [Beard] is widely accepted as the analysis for determining what constitutes a return for purposes 27 of the Internal Revenue Code.").
28 Mem. Dec. (March 31, 2014) at 20:23-26.
24 1 the taxpayer indisputably took no steps to cure his delinquency 2 in filing his 1983 federal income tax return, and did not begin 3 to cooperate with the IRS’s efforts, until the IRS threatened to 4 levy on his wages and his bank account. Id. According to 5 Hatton II, these undisputed facts established that the taxpayer 6 had not engaged in “an honest and reasonable attempt to comply 7 with the requirements of the tax law” as required by the fourth 8 Beard test factor. Id. The bankruptcy court posited that, 9 because Hatton II offered two separate and independent reasons 10 why the Beard test was not met, the second reason given – 11 regarding the honesty and reasonableness of the taxpayer’s 12 efforts – perhaps was non-binding dicta. We disagree. When 13 alternate grounds are given for a holding, neither ground 14 constitutes non-binding dicta. Exp. Grp. v. Reef Indus., Inc., 15 54 F.3d 1466, 1471 (9th Cir. 1995). 16 The bankruptcy court attempted to offer some other reasons 17 why it might not be bound by Hatton II, but none of these other 18 reasons, even if valid, justify a departure from Hatton II’s 19 version of the Beard test, which included a broader honesty-and- 20 reasonableness prong than the bankruptcy court utilized. Because 21 the bankruptcy court did not apply the correct legal standard for 22 assessing the honesty and reasonableness of the Martins’ efforts 23 to comply with applicable tax laws, we must VACATE AND REMAND so 24 that the bankruptcy court can apply the proper legal standard to 25 the relevant facts of this case, which are not limited to the 26 form and content of the Martins’ filings, but also include the 27 number of missing returns, the length of the delay, the reasons 28 for the delay, and any other circumstances reasonably pertaining
25 1 to the honesty and reasonableness of the Martins’ efforts. 2 In sum, we need to ensure that the bankruptcy court views 3 all of the relevant facts through the lens of the appropriate 4 legal standard set forth in Hatton II, and we furthermore believe 5 that the determination of whether all of the relevant facts and 6 circumstances constitute an honest and reasonable effort to 7 comply with the applicable tax laws is best made, in the first 8 instance, by the bankruptcy court. 9 E. IRS Argument That Tax Debts Associated With Post-Assessment 10 Tax Returns Are Always Nondischargeable 11 There is only one other issue that we need to address. We 12 must address the IRS’s argument that a tax debt associated with 13 an IRS tax assessment made without the benefit of a taxpayer- 14 prepared tax return always should be treated as nondischargeable. 15 The IRS’s argument is twofold. First, the IRS contends 16 that, when as here the taxpayer does not file his or her tax 17 return until after the IRS has assessed taxes pursuant to 18 Internal Revenue Code deficiency procedures, the debt arising 19 from the assessment is (and always will be) a debt for which no 20 return has been filed, thereby bringing the debt within the scope 21 of § 523(a)(1)(B)(i) – a tax debt for which a tax return was 22 required but never filed. According to the IRS, it makes no 23 difference whether the taxpayer, after assessment, belatedly 24 files his or her tax return because the nature of the debt (as a 25 debt arising from the assessment rather than the return) cannot 26 and does not change under applicable tax law even when a return 27 is later filed. Aplt. Opn. Br. at pp. 7-15. 28 Our initial reaction to this argument is that it tends to
26 1 prove too much. If we were to accept the IRS’s interpretation of 2 the nature of an assessment-based tax debt, it proves not only 3 that the tax liability arose without a tax return, but also that 4 a tax return was neither necessary nor “required” to impose the 5 assessment-based tax debt. In any event, even if the belated tax 6 return associated with an assessment-based tax debt was still 7 required in some sense, we agree with the reason offered by the 8 bankruptcy court for rejecting this argument. As the bankruptcy 9 court explained, the tax debt within the meaning of the 10 Bankruptcy Code preexists both the filing of the return and the 11 issuance of the IRS assessment. Mem. Dec. (March 31, 2014) at 12 p. 12 (citing Rhodes v. United States (In re Rhodes), 498 B.R. 13 357, 362 (Bankr. N.D. Ga. 2013); see also In re Mallo, 774 F.3d 14 at 1326 (following In re Rhodes). Under the Internal Revenue 15 Code, the tax debt – or right to payment – arises at the end of 16 each tax year and not later on. In re Rhodes, 498 B.R. at 362. 17 An assessment is merely a method for fixing the amount of that 18 debt and not the source of the debt itself. Id. 19 Second, the IRS argues that a post-assessment tax return is 20 the functional equivalent of no tax return at all. As the IRS 21 puts it, once it is forced to assess taxes without the benefit of 22 a taxpayer-prepared return, a later-filed tax return fails to 23 serve its primary function as a vehicle for self-reporting tax 24 liability. We already rejected this identical argument in 25 In re Nunez, 232 B.R. 778, 781-82 (9th Cir. BAP 1999). While 26 some parts of In re Nunez were sub-silentio overruled by 27 Hatton II, Hatton II did not overrule this part of In re Nunez. 28 Nor did Hatton II overrule the following reasoning from
27 1 In re Nunez supporting its rejection of the IRS’s post-assessment 2 tax return argument: 3 Congress could have conditioned discharge of tax debt on whether a return was filed prior to an assessment. 4 As correctly noted by the [bankruptcy] court, Congress used assessment as a trigger for other time periods in 5 the Code, for example, the priority qualifications found in Section 507(a)(8)(A)(ii). When Congress 6 includes particular language in one section of the Code, but omits it in another, it is presumed to have 7 acted intentionally and purposely. We will not read into Section 523(a)(1)(B) the requirement that a debtor 8 must have filed a return prior to an assessment by the IRS. 9 10 In re Nunez, 232 B.R. at 782 (internal citation omitted). 11 Indeed, Hatton II is consistent with Nunez’s rejection of 12 the IRS’s post-assessment tax return argument in the following 13 sense: if Hatton II had agreed with the IRS that a post- 14 assessment tax return is no tax return at all, Hatton II would 15 not have had any need to apply the Beard test (as it did) to 16 resolve the question of whether the debtor there had filed a 17 return within the meaning the nondischargeability statute. 18 Simply put, Hatton II’s holding and reasoning cannot be 19 reconciled with the IRS’s post-assessment tax return argument. 20 Accordingly, we reject both aspects of the IRS’s post- 21 assessment tax return argument. 22 CONCLUSION 23 For the reasons set forth above, we VACATE the bankruptcy 24 court’s judgment holding that the Martins’ tax debt was 25 dischargeable, and we REMAND for further proceedings consistent 26 with this decision. 27 28