Opinion of the Court by LEVINSON, J. as to parts I—III (Identification Sign-in Procedure); Opinion of the Court by ACOBA, J. as to Parts IV-XIV (Merits); and ACOBA, J., Dissenting as to Part III.
PARTIAL OPINION OF THE COURT BY
LEVINSON, J.
The petitioner-appellant Darcy C.K. Frei-tas appeals from the decision of the district court of the first circuit, the Honorable Fa'auuga To'oto'o presiding, affirming the administrative revocation of Freitas’s driver’s license by a hearing officer of the Administrative Driver’s License Revocation Office (ADLRO). In his supplemental brief, Frei-tas argues (1) that he was denied his state and federal constitutional due process rights to an open ADLRO hearing on remand, (2) that the hearing officer “ignored all evidence contrary to her preconceived determination to uphold the ADLRO sign[-]in procedure[,]” and (3) that “the hearing officer’s findings of fact are clearly erroneous and her conclusions of law are contrary to established law[.]”1
In this portion of our opinion, we address Freitas’s contentions that the ADLRO erred in ruling that the sign-in and identification procedure employed at ADLRO hearings did not deprive Freitas of his right to a public hearing. We hold that the hearing officer’s decision was correct, inasmuch as the procedure satisfies the three-part test that this court articulated in Freitas v. Admin. Dir. of the Courts, State of Hawai'i, 104 Hawai'i 483, 489, 92 P.3d 993, 999 (2004) [hereinafter, “Freitas I”].
I. BACKGROUND
On July 14, 2004, the ADLRO conducted a hearing on the question whether the ADL-RO’s sign-in identification procedure imper-missibly limited Freitas’s right to a public hearing. At the hearing, the deputy attorney general, on behalf of the respondent-appellee Administrative Director of the [34]*34Courts (Director), called two witnesses: Lloyd Shimabuku, security consultant to several Waikiki hotels and deputy chief in the investigation division of the state department of the attorney general; and Ronald Sakata, chief adjudicator for the ADLRO. The Director also submitted into evidence two articles, one entitled “A Situationist Perspective on the Psychology of Evil: Understanding How Good People 'Are Transformed Into Perpetrators,” by Phillip G. Zimbardo, Ph.D., in The Social Psychology of Good and Evil: Understanding Our Capacity for Kindness and Cruelty (Arthur Miller ed., 2004), and the second entitled “Identity and Anonymity: Some Conceptual Distinctions and Issues for Research,” by Gary T. Marx, in Documenting Individual Identity (J. Caplan and J. Torpey eds., 2001). Freitas’s counsel called four witnesses to testify: Reneau Charlene Ufford Kennedy, Ph.D., psychologist; Patrick McPherson, attorney; Lois Perrin, Director of the American Civil Liberties Union, Hawaii; and Michael Nakamura, retired chief of the Honolulu Police Department.
Following the hearing, on July 16, 2004, the ADLRO hearing officer entered twenty-five written supplemental FOFs and four written supplemental COLs, which stated in relevant part:
SUPPLEMENTAL FINDINGS OF FACT
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3. The ADLRO instituted this ID procedure as a security measure to prevent unknown members of the general public from entering the inner-office area.
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5. The ID procedure provides a reasonable means of identifying and apprehending those persons who might engage in unlawful or inappropriate behavior at an administrative hearing or within the inner-office area.
6. The ID procedure provides a deterrent for those persons seeking entry past the front desk/reception counter, including those persons who wish to attend hearings, to engage in unlawful, disruptive, or otherwise inappropriate behavior while within the hearing and inner-office area.
7. This deterrent effect arises out of the fact that persons who know that their identity has been recorded will generally be less likely to engage in unlawful or inappropriate behavior for the simple reason that they know they can be held accountable.
8. A person who remains anonymous, on the other hand, is more likely to engage in inappropriate behavior if such person knows that he or she might be able to “get away with it” and not be held accountable. This deterrent effect makes the ID procedure an effective security measure.
9. Although the ID procedure is not a perfect security measure, it is a fundamental first-step in the ADLRO’s security measures.
10. Mr. Sakata, as Chief Adjudicator of the ADLRO, instituted this ID procedure based upon his experience and common sense understanding of human behavior. ...
11. This finding is also supported by the testimony of Mr. Lloyd Shimabuku, a former police officer! ] and current Deputy Chief, special agent, at the Hawaii Attorney General’s office, who also serves as the liaison for Homeland Security.... Mr. Shimabuku, who testified as an expert on security measures (without objection), and who has had direct experience with sign-in and identification-showing requirements, testified that a sign-in and identification requirement does have a deterrent effect upon a person who might otherwise be inclined to engage in unlawful or improper behavior, and that such a requirement serves as a fundamental or basic security measure.
12. Articles by Stanford University psychology professor Phillip G. Zimbardo, and M.I.T. emeritus sociology professor Gary T. Marx, to which no objection was made, provide further support for this finding, because these articles support the principle that anonymity makes people more likely to engage in aggressive, evil, destructive, or unlawful behavior....
13. This Hearing Officer finds that these two articles support the view that the ID procedure, by directly stripping a [35]*35person of'his or her anonymity, lessens the likelihood that the identified person will engage in unlawful, harmful, or otherwise inappropriate behavior at the administrative hearing and within the inner-office area....
14. Mr. Partington also elicited testimony from former police chief Michael Na-kamura that the ID procedure would have little benefit to security. This Hearing Officer finds that this testimony was not particularly persuasive in light of the testimony of not only ADLRO Chief Adjudicator Ronald Sakata, but the testimony of security expert Lloyd Shimabuku, and since Mr. Nakamura conceded that the ID procedure could have some deterrent effect. ...
15. With respect to attorney R. Patrick McPherson’s testimony, as elicited by Mr. Partington, in which McPherson acknowledges that no state comí;, trial or appellate level, requires one to show identification and sign[]in in order to attend a court proceeding, this Hearing Officer finds this testimony unrelated to the ADLRO’s unique circumstances in which, unlike the court buildings, the area to which counsel, respondent, and/or other members of the public are requesting access, includes undifferentiated access to the hearing room as well as all other areas of the ADLRO office, including private offices of ADLRO employees....
16.... [T]he ADLRO does not have separate public and non-public access area[s]. This distinguishing factor between courts and the ADLRO is critical and material in determining whether the ADLRO’s ID procedure is warranted.
17.This Hearing Officer finds that other security measures, including a metal detector, x-ray machine and conveyor belt, a hand metal-detecting wand, and someone to operate these devices, or posting sheriffs or security guards (armed or unarmed) in or near the hearing room—would be expensive and beyond the budget capabilities of the ADLRO. The uncontradicted testimony of Chief Adjudicator Sakata setting forth the approximate costs of some of these measures, and how the ADLRO’s budget would not allow such measures to be taken, supports this finding. On the other hand, the ID procedure costs virtually nothing[.] ...
18. In addition, metal detectors, x-ray machines and hand metal-detecting wands would do nothing to stop a person intent on accosting ADLRO staff or hearing attendees by hand, arm, leg or foot, nor would such devices prevent someone from causing a vocal or verbal disturbance to the administrative proceeding. The ID procedure, on the other hand, could potentially deter such inappropriate behavior....
19. Furthermore, metal detection devices may be very intrusive into a person’s privacy, by requiring people to take their things out of their pockets, have their bags x-rayed, or their personal bodies searched by hand wand.
20. In addition, this Hearing Officer finds that even if such additional security measures were in place—e.g., a metal detector, x-ray conveyor belt, and hand wand, or a security guard—the ID procedure would provide an additional security benefit in the form of deterrence!/] There is no less intrusive way to achieve this particular form of deterrence—based upon depriving a person of her anonymity—other than to have the ADLRO’s ID procedure in effect. Although security cameras, by recording the visual image of a person, do remove some level of anonymity, they still leave a person the chance of remaining unidentified. Indeed, security cameras, by capturing a continuing and visual image of hearing attendees, may be equally if not more intrusive upon a person’s privacy than the ID procedure.
22. This Hearing Officer finds that there is no less intrusive way to provide the unique deterrent effect created by the ADLRO ID procedure other than to maintain the ID procedure. No other security measure could fully substitute for the special and unique deterrent effect brought about by requiring the showing of a picture ID and sign-in, as it is the most effective (and simplest) way of eliminating one’s anonymity....
[36]*3628. This Hearing Officer finds that although the ID procedure is not perfect— e.g., people can sometimes obtain fake ID’s, and some people will engage in bad behavior regardless of being pre-identi-fied—it remains a useful and reasonable security measure for the ADLRO. And the ID procedure is a very easy and simple process for a prospective attendee to meet. A driver’s license, a state I.D. or other acceptable picture identification is all that is necessary. If one does not already own a driver’s license, a state I.D. can be obtained in most cases by presenting a social security card, a birth certificate, and paying a nominal fee. Indeed, a driver’s license, state I.D., or other acceptable picture identification, is something people need for all sorts of everyday activities, including for example: check cashing, banking, and air travel.
24. This Hearing Officer finds that although the ID procedure may deprive a person of his or her anonymity—indeed that is precisely why the ID procedure has an effective deterrent effect—that is not an especially significant intrusion because a person attending the hearing would have their face seen by hearing participants in any event. Furthermore, the ADLRO as a matter of policy does not distribute the sign-in list to anyone, except in the event someone on that list engages in unlawful activity or creates a disturbance.
IV. SUPPLEMENTAL CONCLUSIONS OF LAW
1. The ID procedure serves an important governmental interest: namely, enhancing security and avoiding disruptions at ADLRO administrative hearings.
2. This interest in enhancing security and avoiding disruptions, and the means employed, is unrelated to the content of the information to be disclosed in the administrative proceeding.
8. There is no less restrictive way to fully serve this important governmental interest in enhancing security and avoiding disruptions at ADLRO administrative hearings and inner-office area, other than to continue with the ID procedure. Although other measures can add to security as well, there is no other less intrusive means of achieving the unique deterrent effect that arises out of depriving a person of his or her anonymity. The ADLRO ID procedure is the least intrusive means of achieving this unique deterrent effect.
4. The ADLRO ID procedure is therefore fully warranted, and does not imper-missibly interfere with a respondent’s right to a public hearing.
II. STANDARDS OF REVIEW
A. Judicial Review of Administrative Decisions
[FOFs] are reviewable under the clearly erroneous standard to determine if the agency decision was clearly erroneous in view of reliable, probative, and substantial evidence on the whole record. Alvarez v. Liberty House, Inc., 85 Hawai'i 275, 277, 942 P.2d 539, 541 (1997); HRS § 91-14(g)(5).
[COLs] are freely reviewable to determine if the agency’s decision was in violation of constitutional or statutory provisions, in excess of statutory authority or jurisdiction of agency, or affected by other error of law. Hardin v. Akiba, 84 Hawai'i 305, 310, 933 P.2d 1339, 1344 (1997) (citations omitted); HRS §§ 91-14(g)(1), (2), and (4).
“A COL that presents mixed questions of fact and law is reviewed under the clearly erroneous standard because the conclusion is dependent upon the facts and circumstances of the particular case.” Price v. Zoning Bd. of Appeals of City and County of Honolulu, 77 Hawai'i 168, 172, 883 P.2d 629, 633 (1994)....
Poe[ v. Hawai‘i Labor Relations Board], 87 Hawai'i [191,] 197, 953 P.2d [569,] 573 [ (1998) ].
Curtis v. Board of Appeals, 90 Hawai'i 384, 392-93, 978 P.2d 822, 830-31 (1999).
An FOF or a mixed determination of law and fact is clearly erroneous when (1) the record lacks substantial evidence to support the finding or determination, or (2) despite substantial evidence to support the finding or determination, the appellate [37]*37court is left with the definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been made. See Leslie v. Estate of Tavares, 91 Hawai'i 394, 399, 984 P.2d 1220, 1225 (1999). “We have defined ‘substantial evidence’ as credible evidence which is of sufficient quality and probative value to enable a person of reasonable caution to support a conclusion.” Id. (quoting State v. Kotis, 91 Hawai'i 319, 328, 984 P.2d 78, 87 (1999)).
In re Wai'ola O Moloka‘i, Inc., 103 Hawai'i 401, 421, 83 P.3d 664, 684 (2004) (quoting In re Water Use Permit Applications, 94 Hawai'i 97, 118-19, 9 P.3d 409, 430-31 (2000) (some brackets added and some in original)).
B. Questions of Constitutional Law
“We answer questions of constitutional law ‘by exercising our own independent judgment based on the facts of the ease,’ ” and, thus, questions of constitutional law are reviewed on appeal “under the ‘right/wrong’ standard.”Síaíe v. Jenkins, 93 Hawai'i 87, 100, 997 P.2d 13, 26 (2000) (citations omitted).
State v. Aplaca, 96 Hawai'i 17, 22, 25 P.3d 792, 797 (2001).
III. DISCUSSION
In his supplemental brief, Freitas argues that the hearing officer’s supplemental FOFs and COLs upholding the ADLRO’s sign-in and identification procedure are not supported by substantial evidence in the record and are clearly erroneous. We disagree.
In Freitas, we invoked a three-faceted formulation for determining whether a limitation on access permissibly furthers the legitimate need to maintain “order and dignity” in a public adjudicative proceeding: “[whether] the regulation serve[s] an important government interest; [whether] the interest [is] unrelated to the content of the information to be disclosed in the proceeding; and [whether] there [is a] no less restrictive way to meet that goal.” 104 Hawai'i at 489, 92 P.3d at 999 (quoting Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp. v. Fed. Trade Comm’n, 710 F.2d 1165, 1179 (6th Cir.1983) (citing United States v. O’Brien, 391 U.S. 367, 377, 88 S.Ct. 1673, 20 L.Ed.2d 672 (1968))) (emphasis deleted). We hold (1) that the ADLRO’s identification and sign-in procedure serves an important government interest in securing ADLRO hearings, (2) that the security procedure is unrelated to the content of the information disclosed at ADLRO hearings, and (3) that there is no less restrictive way to meet the goal of securing ADLRO hearings. As such, we hold that the ADLRO’s identification and sign-in procedure does not impermissibly infringe upon Freitas’s constitutional right to a public hearing.
At the hearing on the propriety of the ADLRO’s identification and sign-in procedure, the Director adduced evidence that the “ADLRO instituted [the] ID procedure as a security measure to prevent unknown members of the general public from entering the inner-office area.” The Director further demonstrated that the identification procedure “provides a deterrent” to people engaging in “unlawful, disruptive, or otherwise inappropriate behavior while within the hearing and inner-office area.” The Director elicited testimony from Chief Adjudicator Sakata that the ADLRO identification procedure was established to “provide a deterrent to inappropriate behavior.” The hearing officer found that the identification procedure was a “fundamental first[ ]step in the ADLRO’s security measures” and determined that such a finding was supported by the testimony of the security expert Shima-buku and the two psychology articles proffered by the Director.
In United States v. DeLuca, 137 F.3d 24 (1st Cir.1998), the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit held that the trial court’s requirement that trial spectators present identification before entering the courtroom did not violate the defendants’ rights to a public trial. In DeLuca, a United States Marshall sua sponte established a screening and identification procedure for each spectator who wished to enter the courtroom in order to help offset courtroom security risks. 137 F.3d at 32.
[I]n the circumstances presented here[,] we cannot agree that prudent identification procedures suitably focused at deterring would-be trial spectators who may pose unacceptable risks—either to the security of the courtroom or the integrity of the [38]*38factfinding process—need be held in abeyance pending evidence of an actual attempt to influence or harm a witness or juror in the case on trial. Therefore, though we cannot endorse the unilateral action by the United States Marshal, we hold that it did not strip away the substantial deference due the district court’s subsequent assessment that the screening procedures were warranted.
Id. at 34-35. The First Circuit further stated that, “in our view[,] an appellate court should be hesitant to displace a trial court’s judgment call in such circumstances.” Id. at 34.
In the present matter, the Director explained that the ADLRO’s identification and sign-in procedure is designed to advance the substantial government interest of heightening security for the ADLRO’s hearings and its inner-office area. We are thus “hesitant to displace [the ADLRO hearing officerj’s judgment call in [these] circumstances.” DeLuca, 137 F.3d at 34.
Similarly, in Williams v. State, 690 N.E.2d 162 (Ind.1997), the Indiana Supreme Court held that courtroom security procedures requiring that each person who was unknown to the officer at the door show identification and sign in did not amount to “exclusion” of anyone and, thus, did not implicate the right to public trial.
The security procedures required that each person who was unknown to the officer show identification and sign in. Neither requirement actively excludes anyone. The identification requirement introduced a minor procedural hurdle to gaining admittance to the trial by demanding the production of some form of identification, which is an item readily available to the general public.... In sum, this simply is not a case of partial or total closure of the proceedings to the public and so the constitutional right to a public trial is not implicated by the procedures as they were used in this case.
Williams, 690 N.E.2d at 168-69. Although the Williams court held that there was no constitutional violation, the court went on to require that trial courts make findings in support of security measures imposed beyond those customarily permitted.
Even where the measure does not amount to a violation of the constitutional rights of the defendant, when access to public proceedings is impeded, even slightly, the right to be free to walk into court and assess our justice system in operation comes under threat. Any such restriction must be imposed only with proper justification. Accordingly, we require under our supervisory powers that the court make a finding that specifically supports any measures taken beyond what is customarily permitted that are likely to affect unfettered access by the press and public to the courtroom. The finding need not be extensive, but must provide the reasons for the action taken, and show that both the burdens and benefits of the action have been considered. This exercise of supervisory powers applies to trials conducted after the publication of this opinion.
The trial court in this case failed to provide such a record.... The court made no findings as to why the procedures were warranted.
Because the court did not provide the reasons for its decision to authorize the procedures, and because the record does not clearly substantiate the need for these additional precautions, the trial court’s condoning of use of the identification procedures does not meet the standard we announce today. As an abstract proposition, this kind of procedure seems likely to produce both a slight burden and a slight benefit. The taking of names is perhaps intimidating for some, but the practice also is likely to help control courtroom behavior. Because it alerts spectators that the court can identify them, it may discourage some who might otherwise have disrupted the proceeding in the hope of remaining anonymous. Accordingly, when considering this sort of procedure, a court must weigh the prospective benefits to the order and security of the courtroom with the burdens to the defendant, the press, and the public.
Id. at 169-70 (footnotes omitted). Consonant with the Williams rationale, this court tern-[39]*39porarily remanded the present matter to the ADLRO for a hearing on Freitas’s objections to the ADRLO’s identification and sign-in procedure, and the hearing officer entered FOFs and COLs supporting the procedure. Accordingly, the hearing officer made findings that “specifically support!] any measures taken beyond what is customarily permitted” in order to “substantiate the need for these additional precautions!.]”
In United States v. Brazel, 102 F.3d 1120 (11th Cir.1997), cert. denied, 522 U.S. 822, 118 S.Ct. 79, 139 L.Ed.2d 37 (1997), the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit held that the district court’s requirement that all persons entering the courtroom provide identification did not violate the defendants’ constitutional rights. “The [s]ixth [a]mendment right to a public trial is not absolute and must, on occasion, give way to other rights, and interests.” Brazel, 102 F.3d at 1155 (quoting Waller v. Georgia, 467 U.S. 39, 45, 104 S.Ct. 2210, 81 L.Ed.2d 31 (1984)). “[I]f the identification procedure can be said to have imposed a closure at all, it was ‘partial,’ as all persons wishing to enter the courtroom were allowed to do so provided they identified themselves as required, and the required identification was not especially arduous.”
We find no violation of the Constitution. The trial judge implemented the identification procedure based on her own observations for more than a week, confirmed by the prosecution, that individuals had been coming into the courtroom and fixing stares on the witnesses and possibly government counsel. The court considered the alternative proposed by defendants, but reasonably found it infeasible. She did not believe that, while presiding over the trial, she could assume the responsibility to pick out individuals who might be trying to influence the witnesses or might otherwise pose a threat to trial participants. Given the specific problem that had arisen and the limited nature of the remedy adopted, we see no abuse of discretion in what was done.
Brazel, 102 F.3d at 1156.2 See also Bell v. Evatt, 72 F.3d 421, 433 (4th Cir.1995), cert. denied 518 U.S. 1009, 116 S.Ct. 2533, 135 L.Ed.2d 1056 (1996) (holding that trial court’s prevention of ingress and egress to courtroom during witness testimony did not violate public-trial right where “trial judge was merely maintaining order in his courtroom and ensuring a non-disruptive atmosphere” for participants, press, and public).
In the present matter, the governmental interest at stake is the security of ADLRO hearings, which is obviously unrelated to the hearings’ substantive content. In any event, Freitas does not argue that the ADLRO hearing officer erred in applying that portion of the three-part formulation outlined in Freitas I. 104 Hawai'i at 489, 92 P.3d at 999.
The ADLRO identification and sign-in procedure also satisfies the third prong of the Freitas I formulation, to wit, that there be no less restrictive way to meet the ALDRO’s goal of securing their hearings. See 104 Hawai'i at 489, 92 P.3d at 999. The Director adduced substantial evidence that the costs associated with implementing other security [40]*40procedures—i.e., metal detectors, x-ray machines, additional security guards—were not fiscally feasible. Further to the foregoing, the hearing officer found that such additional security measures would not obviate the efficacy of the ADLRO’s current identification and sign-in procedure in any event. The security expert, Shimabuku, testified that the ADLRO’s identification procedure provided “a separate and beneficial deterrent effect” to any additional security procedures. Frei-tas’s contention that “the ADLRO is part of the Judiciary and[] if the Judiciary can afford to put metal detectors and deputy sheriffs in the courts, it can certainly afford to put a metal detector and/or a deputy sheriff in the ADLRO[,]” is both unsupported and unpersuasive. Although Freitas further postulates that “[a]nything that discourages public participation in the functioning of government is intolerable if the interests of the government can be achieved by alternative means,” (emphasis in original), recommendations contained within the Security Assessment 3 specifically concluded that “[ajdditional security measures will be costly, create inconvenience, and increase workload for the receptionist.” The hearing officer’s conclusion that there is no less restrictive means of securing ADLRO hearings is supported by substantial evidence. Consequently, the inquiry into whether the identification procedure as implemented at ADLRO hearings is the least restrictive means of achieving the goal of providing security at hearings has been satisfied.
The ADLRO’s identification and sign-in procedure is reasonably tailored to meet the security needs of ADLRO hearings. Furthermore, the Director satisfied the burden of establishing the reasonableness of the ADLRO sign-in and identification procedure. The ADLRO’s procedure in no way, in and of itself, deprives parties of a public hearing. Therefore, we hold that the hearing officer’s decision upholding the sign-in and identification procedure at ADLRO hearings is supported by substantial evidence and that Frei-tas’s constitutional right to a public hearing was not impermissibly infringed.
PARTIAL OPINION OF THE COURT BY ACOBA, J.
A majority of this court has decided that the sign-in and identification procedure of the Administrative Driver’s License Revocation Office (ADLRO) was valid. Therefore, we turn to the merits of Freitas’s appeal.
IV.
We hold that (1) the administrative hearing procedures of the ADLRO did not violate Freitas’s due process rights and (2) the district court did not err in failing to reverse the hearing officer’s decision which was based on prior rulings of the district court, which, by their very nature, are unpublished and have no precedential effect. Based on the foregoing, we affirm the judgment of the District Court of the First Circuit, Honolulu Division 4 (the court) affirming the decision of the ADLRO, and thereby sustaining the revocation of Freitas’s driver’s license.
V.
As mentioned in the prior remand, see Freitas I, 104 Hawai'i 483, 92 P.3d 993, on January 16, 2002, Freitas was arrested for driving under the influence of an intoxicating liquor (DUI). On January 17, 2002, he was issued a notice of license revocation for DUI. On January 23, 2002, Frietas’s driver’s license revocation was sustained by a review officer of the ADLRO. On January 30, 2002, Freitas requested a hearing.
When the hearing began, the hearing officer admitted into evidence all of the documents that were contained in the ADLRO case file. The hearing officer denied counsel’s request to subpoena ADLRO Chief Adjudicator Ronald Sakata to testify about the identification procedure which required anyone attending an ADLRO hearing to sign in and produce picture identification. The [41]*41hearing officer did not permit a hearing on this matter.
After raising the above requests, counsel asked the hearing officer to follow a hearing procedure as set forth in a written document presented by him.5 The hearing officer declined counsel’s offer; instead the hearing officer indicated she would 1) allow counsel to raise any issues; 2) start calling witnesses; then 3) proceed with arguments.
[Counsel]: And if you’re not willing to follow that procedure, I wish to know what procedure is going to be followed.
[Hearing Officer]: Well, I haven’t reviewed the request, but I will note that the statute does allow this [hjearing [ojfficer to conduct and control the course of this hearing and the procedure that I would follow and am going to follow, counsel, is I’m going to allow you to raise any issues that you have, as you are doing now, regarding this case, however, regarding the facts and circumstances of this case. Then, I’m going to start calling the witnesses.
We, usually, start with the arresting offi-eer[ ] ... [t]hen I will proceed to hear your arguments after that.
[Counsel]: [W]ho has the burden of proof? Does the burden of producing evi-denee ever shift in this case? These are all questions that are very important to arrestees in determining how to proceed and when and how to offer evidence.
[Hearing Officer]: You may proceed, counsel, with you putting on your case, if you want to examine the officers or not, you are entitled to waive, as well.
[Counsel]: So you will not follow your [sic] procedure?
[Hearing Officer]: No. I haven’t had time to even read it, so, no.
[Counsel]: Well, I ask that you read it. I think I’m required to do that.
[Hearing Officer]: I don’t believe so. I believe the statute does allow me to conduct the course of this hearing, which I do. So, I’m asking now, would you like to examine your witnesses, and put any other issues on the record at this time?
(Emphases added.)
The arresting officer, Officer Lorica, then testified that at the time of Freitas’s arrest, she read to him from the driver’s implied consent form entitled, “Administrative Revocation of Driver’s License and Motor Vehicle Registration Form.” This form referred to HRS chapter 286, Part XIV (Supp.2000) (re[42]*42pealed effective January 1, 2002, and replaced with HRS chapter 291E, Part III).
The Intoxilyzer operator failed to appear to testify. As a result, the hearing officer excluded an Intoxilyzer test6 result obtained from Freitas. After the test result was excluded, counsel objected to the ADLRO asserting jurisdiction, maintaining that a “valid breath or blood test or refusal is a jurisdictional requirement for administrative revocation.” Counsel also argued that the implied consent form the police read to Freitas referred to Chapter 286, Part XIV, which had been repealed, and that the Notice of Administrative Revocation failed to explain the distinction between the administrative revocation and criminal suspension or revocation as required by HRS § 291E-34(a)(2) (Supp. 2002).
The hearing officer sustained the revocation of Freitas’s driver’s license pursuant to HRS § 291E-38(e) in a written decision dated March 13, 2002. But, the hearing officer found that Freitas had not been properly informed “of the sanctions and consequences of the law as it was in effect on the day of his arrest[,]” apparently because the implied consent form referred to a repealed statute. The hearing officer determined in effect, that the proper remedy was to strike Freitas’s Intoxilyzer test result. Based on other evidence, the hearing officer determined that Freitas operated his vehicle while DUI:
1.There existed reasonable suspicion for Officer Lorica to stop the vehicle operated by [Freitas].
2. There existed probable cause to believe that [Freitas] operated the vehicle while under the influence of an intoxicant.
3. That irrespective of [Freitas’s] breath test result, the remainder of the record nevertheless reflects by a preponderance of the evidence, that [Freitas] operated the vehicle while under the influence of an intoxicant.....
4. [Freitas’s] five (5) year driving record preceding the date of arrest (January 17, 2002) shows no alcohol enforcement contact or drug enforcement contact, as defined in HRS § 291E-1.
5. Pursuant to HRS § 291E^1 [7], the period of revocation that may be imposed on [Freitas] is a minimum of three months up to a maximum period of one year.
Therefore, it is the decision of the director, by the undersigned Hearing Officer, that [Freitas’s] driver’s license be revoked for a period of three months, from February 17, 2002 through and including May 16, 2002.
(Emphasis added.)
The findings in the decision cited to unpublished district court decisions in other ADL-RO cases. Freitas appealed to the court.
On August 13, 2002, the court affirmed the hearing officer by a written decision.8 A separate judgment filed on the same day stated that, “[p]ursuant to the Decision and Order Affirming Administrative Revocation entered herein on August 13, 2002, Administrative Revocation is affirmed.”
[43]*43VI.
The identification sign-in procedure aside, on appeal, Freitas essentially argues that the court erred (1) in impliedly ruling (a) that the administrative hearing procedure did not deny Freitas his rights to due process of law under the Fifth and Fourteenth amendments of the United States Constitution9 and Article I, § 5 of the Hawai'i Constitution10 or (b) the mandate of Chapter 291E, Part III, and (2) in failing to reverse the hearing officer for citing to unpublished district court ADLRO decisions to justify her decision.
VII.
“Review of a decision made by a court upon its review of an administrative decision is a secondary appeal. The standard of review is one in which this court must determine whether the court under review was right or wrong in its decision.” Soderlund v. Admin. Dir. of the Courts, 96 Hawai'i 114, 118, 26 P.3d 1214, 1218 (2001) (internal quotation marks, citations and brackets omitted) (vacating and remanding the district court’s amended decision affirming the revocation of motorist’s driver’s license for driving under the influence of alcohol). HRS § 291E-40 (Supp.2002)11 governs judicial review by the district court of an administrative revocation of a driver’s license by the Director.12
VIII.
On appeal we review findings of fact under the clearly erroneous standard. Child Support Enforcement Agency v. Roe, 96 Hawai'i 1, 11, 25 P.3d 60, 70 (2001). Findings of fact are “clearly erroneous when the record lacks substantial evidence to support the finding.” Id. (quoting In re Water Use Permit Applications, 94 Hawai'i 97, 119, 9 P.3d 409, 431 (2000)). “‘Substantial evidence’ is credible evidence which is of sufficient quality and probative value to enable a person of reasonable caution to support a conclusion.” Id. (brackets, internal quotation marks, and citation omitted); see Leslie v. Estate of Tavares, 91 Hawai'i 394, 399, 984 P.2d 1220, 1225 (1999). Findings of fact are also clearly erroneous when “despite substantial evidence to support the finding ..., the appellate court is left with the definite and firm conviction in reviewing the entire evidence that a mistake has been made.” Child Support Enforcement Agency, 96 Hawai'i at 11, 25 P.3d at 70. “Hawai'i appellate courts review conclusions of law de novo, under the right/wrong standard.” Leslie, 91 Hawai'i at 399, 984 P.2d at 1225 (citations omitted).
[44]*44IX.
As mentioned, Freitas asserts that he was deprived of due process because the clear mandate of HRS chapter 291E was violated. His subsidiary points appear to be (1) that the revocation law, HRS chapter 291E, Part III, does not expressly set forth a specific procedure to be followed at an administrative hearing, (2) that in seeming contradiction, “HRS § 291E-38(a) provides [that] ... the function of the administrative hearing is to ‘review the [administrative review] decision,’ but the person arrested for DUI may call witnesses and offer witnesses,” suggesting it is a de novo hearing, (3) the plain language of HRS § 291E-37(c)(3) and HRS § 291E-38(h) does not authorize receipt of the entire ADLRO file or police report into evidence, (4) HRS chapter 291E, Part III, requires that there be a valid chemical test or refusal for the ADLRO to assert jurisdiction.
As to his subsidiary arguments (1) and (2), Freitas proposed a procedure, which he argued would not offend due process13 and would reconcile the “apparent conflict” he perceived between a de novo hearing14 and the hearing officer’s role of administrative review. In Desmond v. Admin. Dir. of the Courts, 91 Hawai'i 212, 219, 982 P.2d 346, 353, (App.1998) [hereinafter, Desmond I], rev’d on other grounds, 90 Hawai'i 301, 978 P.2d 739 (1999) [hereinafter, Desmond II], the motorist proposed a hearing procedure almost identical to the procedure supported by Freitas in this case.15 The Intermediate Court of Appeals (ICA) held, however, that the hearing officer “did not err in following her procedure rather than the procedure proposed by [the motorist]” and rejected contentions similar to those raised by Freitas. Id. It was concluded “that the applicable law does not require the [h]earing [o]fficer to follow the procedure proposed by Desmond.” Id. at 218, 982 P.2d at 352. On certiorari, this court affirmed the ICA, except on a matter not relevant to this issue. See Desmond II, 90 Hawaii 301, 978 P.2d 739.
We observe that procedural due process requires that a person have an “opportunity to be heard at a meaningful time and in a meaningful manner.” Farmer v. Admin. Dir. of the Courts, 94 Hawai'i 232, 238, 11 P.3d 457, 463 (2000). This court has said that providing a presuspension revocation hearing “sufficiently assure[d] reliable results and provide[d] adequate due process.” Id. at 239, 11 P.3d at 464. Freitas was afforded such a hearing on March 8, 2002, where witnesses were called and he was represented by counsel.16 The ADLRO [45]*45program has been examined and found not to violate due process. Kernan, 75 Haw. at 25-32, 856 P.2d at 1219-22; Farmer, 94 Hawai'i at 238, 11 P.3d at 463; Desmond I, 91 Hawai'i at 220, 982 P.2d at 354. In addition, the hearing officer advised counsel of the procedure that she was going to follow consistent with the caution that “[i]t is advisable that, at the commencement of the administrative hearing, the [hjearing [o]fficer inform the parties what procedure he or she will follow.” Desmond I, 91 Hawai'i at 219, 982 P.2d at 353. In light of the foregoing, we do not believe reversible error was committed and, thus, decline Freitas’s invitation to overrule Desmond I.
We observe, however, as previously noted in the facts, that the hearing officer’s procedure consisted of ascertaining issues raised by Freitas and then proceeding to the calling of witnesses starting with the arresting officer. In Desmond I, the ICA pointed out that in Kernan, 75 Haw. at 30, 856 P.2d at 1222, this court directed that the grounds for revocation must first be established before the arrestee proceeds with his or her evidence.17 91 Hawai'i at 218, 982 P.2d at 352. Accordingly, insofar as the hearing officer may have conveyed the suggestion that Freitas was to “raise [his] issues” at the beginning of the hearing, it should be made clear that an arrestee cannot be called on to respond or to “raise any issues” before the initial burden of proof with respect to revocation is satisfied.
X.
As to Freitas’s third argument, HRS § 291E-37(c) (Supp.2002) sets forth the matters the administrative officer “shall consider” in conducting the administrative review. HRS § 291E-37(c) states in pertinent part that “[a]ny sworn or unsworn written statement or other written evidence provided by the respondent [and] ... [t]he sworn statement of any law enforcement officer or other person or other evidence or information required by section 291E-36”18 shall be considered. In Desmond I, the ICA disagreed with contentions similar to those raised by Freitas. The ICA stated that “the [h]earing [o]fficer must exclude from the record only the following: (a) all unsworn statements (except the arrest report) of law enforcement officials who do not appear to testify; and (b) all other evidence that is both irrelevant and [46]*46prejudicial.” 91 Hawai'i at 220, 982 P.2d at 354. The ICA stated that “[a]n agency should receive all evidence which is competent, relevant and material, regardless of its weight, and a refusal to hear such evidence can constitute a denial of due process.” Id.
Freitas has failed to demonstrate how admitting the entire ADLRO file and police report contravenes the administrative revocation statute, and violates due process. We cannot agree with his argument regarding an alleged inconsistency between HRS § 291E-37(c)(3) and HRS § 291E-38(h).19 We note that admission of the ADLRO file and police report may be barred if irrelevant or prejudicial. Freitas has not provided any evidence that the admission of the entire record or the police report was irrelevant or prejudicial.
Furthermore, although the plain language of the statute states that an “arrest report” shall be considered, legislative history fails to provide guidance in defining this term. While the hearing officer was not required by statute to admit the police report for her review, we cannot say the hearing officer reversibly erred when she did so. Freitas does not specify which items received in evidence, including the police report, were irrelevant or prejudicial.20
XI.
As to his fourth argument, Freitas contends that because he was not properly informed as to the “distinction between an administrative license revocation and a license suspension in a criminal DUI case ... as required by H.R.S. § 291E-33(a)(2),” he should be entitled to restoration of his driving privileges. In this regard, Freitas asserts that “the legislature did not intend that the police may forego entirely the reading of the implied consent law so long as they can provide a sworn statement showing that the person was under the influence[,] applying the subjective test of H.R.S. § 291E-61(a)(1).” In this case, the hearing officer refused to admit the intoxilyzer results. We believe this is an adequate safeguard in the situation where the police fail to adequately notify the defendant of the implied consent law.
Nowhere is it indicated that notice of the implied consent law was intended to act as a jurisdictional prerequisite to a license revocation hearing. Rather, notice was required to inform motorists of the consequences of agreeing or refusing to consent to a DUI test. See State v. Garcia, 96 Hawai'i 200, 208, 29 P.3d 919, 927 (2001) (Nakayama, J. dissenting, joined by Ramil, J.) (reiterating the exclusionary rule that remedy for violation of implied consent rule was exclusion of intoxi-lyzer test); State v. Wilson, 92 Hawai'i 45, 49, 987 P.2d 268, 272 (1999) (Nakayama, J. dissenting, joined by Ramil, J.) (announcing exclusionary rule and holding that implied consent law was intending to protect the rights of the driver “to enable the driver to knowingly and intelligently consent to or refuse a chemical alcohol test”).
XII.
Finally, Freitas contends that the district court erred in failing to reverse the [47]*47hearing officer’s decision because the hearing officer cited to unpublished district court ADLRO decisions. See Kema v. Gaddis, 91 Hawai'i 200, 204 n. 4, 982 P.2d 334, 338 n. 4 (1999) (clarifying that “decision and orders issued in unrelated ... cases that were not reviewed on appeal and addressed in published decisions have no precedential value”). Freitas relies on Chun v. Bd. of Trustees of the Employees’ Ret. Sys., 92 Hawai'i 432, 446, 992 P.2d 127, 141 (2000) (citations omitted) which stated that, “[ajlthough this jurisdiction has yet expressly to articulate the rule, other jurisdictions have adopted the position that unpublished decisions of trial courts have no precedential value.”
In opposition, the State argues that regardless of whether the court cited to unpublished or published trial court decisions, “the only time reversal of a lower court decision is warranted is when the legal result or position adopted by the lower court is found to be erroneous as a matter of law.” We agree with this proposition. Cf. Poe v. Hawai’i Labor Relations Bd., 87 Hawai'i 191, 197, 953 P.2d 569, 575 (1998) (holding that if upon review the circuit court’s decision is correct, the circuit’s court’s decision “will not be disturbed on the ground that it gave the wrong reason for its ruling”); Delos Reyes v. Kubo-yama, 76 Hawai'i 137, 140, 870 P.2d 1281, 1284 (1994) (holding that appellate court may affirm grant of summary judgment based on any ground appearing in the record, even if circuit court did not rely on it).
In reviewing the hearing officer’s decision, it appears that the hearing officer cited to a number of unpublished district court decisions. However, inasmuch as the hearing officer’s decision did not involve any reversible error, the court did not reversibly err when it did not reverse the hearing officer’s decision.
XIII.
For the foregoing reasons, the court’s August 13, 2002 judgment affirming the administrative revocation of Freitas’s driver’s license, is affirmed.